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普通的队列是一种先进先出的数据结构，元素在队列尾追加，而从队列头删除。在优先队列中，元素被赋予优先级。当访问元素时，具有最高优先级的元素最先删除。相同优先级的项则按照先进先出的顺序删除。优先队列的出队操作和队列一样，都是从队首出队，但在优先队列的内部，元素的次序却是由“优先级”来决定：高优先级的元素排在队首，而低优先级的元素则排在后面。这样，优先队列的入队操作就比较复杂，需要将元素根据优先级尽量排到队列前面。一个实现优先队列的经典方法便是采用二叉堆（Binary Heap)。二叉堆能将优先队列的入队和出队复杂度都保持在O(logn)。
一、二叉堆的结构性质
平衡的二叉树根节点的左右子树的子节点个数相同。在堆的实现中，我们采用“完全二叉树”的结构来近似地实现“平衡”。完全二叉树，指每个内部节点树均达到最大值，除了最后一层可以只缺少右边的若干节点。下图所示就是一个完全二叉树。
有意思的是使用单个列表就能实现完全树，不需要使用节点、引用或嵌套列表。因为对于完全二叉树，如果节点在列表中的下标为 p，那么其左子节点下标为 2p，右节点为 2p+1。当我们要找任何节点的父节点时，可以直接使用 python 的整除。如果节点在列表中下标为n，那么父节点下标为n//2。下图所示就是一个完全二叉树的列表表示法。
二、二叉堆操作的实现
二叉堆的有趣之处在于，其逻辑结构上像二叉树，却是用非嵌套的列表来实现。二叉堆有两种：键值总是最小的排在队首称为“最小堆（min heap）”，反之，键值总是最大的排在队首称为“最大堆（max heap）”。
二叉堆的基本操作定义如下：
BinaryHeap()：创建一个空的二叉堆对象insert(k)：将新元素加入到堆中findMin()：返回堆中的最小项，最小项仍保留在堆中delMin()：返回堆中的最小项，同时从堆中删除isEmpty()：返回堆是否为空size()：返回堆中节点的个数buildHeap(list)：从一个包含节点的列表里创建新堆
（1）创建二叉堆节点
class BinHeap:
def __init__(self):
self.heapList = [0]
self.currentSize = 0（2）插入节点
为了满足“完全二叉树”的性质，新键值应该添加到列表的末尾。然而新键值简单地添加在列表末尾，显然无法满足堆次序。但我们可以通过比较父节点和新加入的元素的方法来重新满足堆次序。如果新加入的元素比父节点要小，可以与父节点互换位置。
def percUp(self,i):
while i // 2 > 0:
if self.heapList[i] < self.heapList[i // 2]:
tmp = self.heapList[i // 2]
self.heapList[i // 2] = self.heapList[i]
self.heapList[i] = tmp
i = i // 2
def insert(self,k):
self.heapList.append(k)
self.currentSize = self.currentSize + 1
self.percUp(self.currentSize)（3）删除最小项
堆次序（最小堆）要求根节点是树中最小的元素，因此很容易找到最小项。比较困难的是移走根节点的元素后如何保持堆结构和堆次序，我们可以分两步走。首先，用最后一个节点来代替根节点。移走最后一个节点保持了堆结构的性质。这么简单的替换，还是会破坏堆次序。那么第二步，将新节点“下沉”来恢复堆次序。图 4 所示的是一系列交换操作来使新节点“下沉”到正确的位置。
def percDown(self,i):
while (i * 2) <= self.currentSize:
mc = self.minChild(i)
if self.heapList[i] > self.heapList[mc]:
tmp = self.heapList[i]
self.heapList[i] = self.heapList[mc]
self.heapList[mc] = tmp
i = mc
def minChild(self,i):
if i * 2 + 1 > self.currentSize:
return i * 2
else:
if self.heapList[i*2] < self.heapList[i*2+1]:
return i * 2
else:
return i * 2 + 1
def delMin(self):
item=self.heapList[1]
self.heapList[1]=self.heapList[self.currentSize]
self.currentSize-=1
self.heapList.pop()
self.percDown(1)
return item四、建立二叉堆
二叉堆的最后一部分便是找到从无序列表生成一个“堆”的方法。我们首先想到的是，将无序列表中的每个元素依次插入到堆中。对于一个排好序的列表，我们可以用二分搜索找到合适的位置，然后在下一个位置插入这个键值到堆中，时间复杂度为O(logn)。另外插入一个元素到列表中需要将列表的一些其他元素移动，为新节点腾出位置，时间复杂度为O(n)。因此用insert方法的总开销是O(nlogn)。其实我们能直接将整个列表生成堆，将总开销控制在O(n)。
def buildHeap(self,alist):
i = len(alist) // 2
self.currentSize = len(alist)
self.heapList = [0] + alist[:]
while (i > 0):
self.percDown(i)
i = i - 1下列所示的代码是完全二叉堆的实现：
class BinHeap:
def __init__(self):
self.heapList = [0]
self.currentSize = 0
def percUp(self,i):
while i // 2 > 0:
if self.heapList[i] < self.heapList[i // 2]:
tmp = self.heapList[i // 2]
self.heapList[i // 2] = self.heapList[i]
self.heapList[i] = tmp
i = i // 2
def insert(self,k):
self.heapList.append(k)
self.currentSize = self.currentSize + 1
self.percUp(self.currentSize)
def percDown(self,i):
while (i * 2) <= self.currentSize:
mc = self.minChild(i)
if self.heapList[i] > self.heapList[mc]:
tmp = self.heapList[i]
self.heapList[i] = self.heapList[mc]
self.heapList[mc] = tmp
i = mc
def minChild(self,i):
if i * 2 + 1 > self.currentSize:
return i * 2
else:
if self.heapList[i*2] < self.heapList[i*2+1]:
return i * 2
else:
return i * 2 + 1
def delMin(self):
retval = self.heapList[1]
self.heapList[1] = self.heapList[self.currentSize]
self.currentSize = self.currentSize - 1
self.heapList.pop()
self.percDown(1)
return retval
def buildHeap(self,alist):
i = len(alist) // 2
self.currentSize = len(alist)
self.heapList = [0] + alist[:]
while (i > 0):
self.percDown(i)
i = i - 1
bh = BinHeap()
bh.buildHeap([9,5,6,2,3])
print(bh.delMin())
print(bh.delMin())
print(bh.delMin())
print(bh.delMin())
print(bh.delMin())参见http://python.jobbole.com/85338/
Python 中内置的 heapq和queue模块分别提供了堆和优先队列结构，其中优先队列queue.PriorityQueue本身也是基于heapq实现的，因此我们这次重点看一下heapq。
class Queue:
"""Create a queue object with a given maximum size.
If maxsize is <= 0, the queue size is infinite.
"""
def __init__(self, maxsize=0):
self.maxsize = maxsize
self._init(maxsize)
# mutex must be held whenever the queue is mutating. All methods
# that acquire mutex must release it before returning. mutex
# is shared between the three conditions, so acquiring and
# releasing the conditions also acquires and releases mutex.
self.mutex = _threading.Lock()
# Notify not_empty whenever an item is added to the queue; a
# thread waiting to get is notified then.
self.not_empty = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
# Notify not_full whenever an item is removed from the queue;
# a thread waiting to put is notified then.
self.not_full = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
# Notify all_tasks_done whenever the number of unfinished tasks
# drops to zero; thread waiting to join() is notified to resume
self.all_tasks_done = _threading.Condition(self.mutex)
self.unfinished_tasks = 0
def task_done(self):
"""Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.
Used by Queue consumer threads. For each get() used to fetch a task,
a subsequent call to task_done() tells the queue that the processing
on the task is complete.
If a join() is currently blocking, it will resume when all items
have been processed (meaning that a task_done() call was received
for every item that had been put() into the queue).
Raises a ValueError if called more times than there were items
placed in the queue.
"""
self.all_tasks_done.acquire()
try:
unfinished = self.unfinished_tasks - 1
if unfinished <= 0:
if unfinished < 0:
raise ValueError('task_done() called too many times')
self.all_tasks_done.notify_all()
self.unfinished_tasks = unfinished
finally:
self.all_tasks_done.release()
def join(self):
"""Blocks until all items in the Queue have been gotten and processed.
The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the
queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls task_done()
to indicate the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete.
When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, join() unblocks.
"""
self.all_tasks_done.acquire()
try:
while self.unfinished_tasks:
self.all_tasks_done.wait()
finally:
self.all_tasks_done.release()
def qsize(self):
"""Return the approximate size of the queue (not reliable!)."""
self.mutex.acquire()
n = self._qsize()
self.mutex.release()
return n
def empty(self):
"""Return True if the queue is empty, False otherwise (not reliable!)."""
self.mutex.acquire()
n = not self._qsize()
self.mutex.release()
return n
def full(self):
"""Return True if the queue is full, False otherwise (not reliable!)."""
self.mutex.acquire()
n = 0 < self.maxsize == self._qsize()
self.mutex.release()
return n
def put(self, item, block=True, timeout=None):
"""Put an item into the queue.
If optional args 'block' is true and 'timeout' is None (the default),
block if necessary until a free slot is available. If 'timeout' is
a non-negative number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises
the Full exception if no free slot was available within that time.
Otherwise ('block' is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot
is immediately available, else raise the Full exception ('timeout'
is ignored in that case).
"""
self.not_full.acquire()
try:
if self.maxsize > 0:
if not block:
if self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
raise Full
elif timeout is None:
while self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
self.not_full.wait()
elif timeout < 0:
raise ValueError("'timeout' must be a non-negative number")
else:
endtime = _time() + timeout
while self._qsize() == self.maxsize:
remaining = endtime - _time()
if remaining <= 0.0:
raise Full
self.not_full.wait(remaining)
self._put(item)
self.unfinished_tasks += 1
self.not_empty.notify()
finally:
self.not_full.release()
def put_nowait(self, item):
"""Put an item into the queue without blocking.
Only enqueue the item if a free slot is immediately available.
Otherwise raise the Full exception.
"""
return self.put(item, False)
def get(self, block=True, timeout=None):
"""Remove and return an item from the queue.
If optional args 'block' is true and 'timeout' is None (the default),
block if necessary until an item is available. If 'timeout' is
a non-negative number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises
the Empty exception if no item was available within that time.
Otherwise ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately
available, else raise the Empty exception ('timeout' is ignored
in that case).
"""
self.not_empty.acquire()
try:
if not block:
if not self._qsize():
raise Empty
elif timeout is None:
while not self._qsize():
self.not_empty.wait()
elif timeout < 0:
raise ValueError("'timeout' must be a non-negative number")
else:
endtime = _time() + timeout
while not self._qsize():
remaining = endtime - _time()
if remaining <= 0.0:
raise Empty
self.not_empty.wait(remaining)
item = self._get()
self.not_full.notify()
return item
finally:
self.not_empty.release()
def get_nowait(self):
"""Remove and return an item from the queue without blocking.
Only get an item if one is immediately available. Otherwise
raise the Empty exception.
"""
return self.get(False)
# Override these methods to implement other queue organizations
# (e.g. stack or priority queue).
# These will only be called with appropriate locks held
# Initialize the queue representation
def _init(self, maxsize):
self.queue = deque()
def _qsize(self, len=len):
return len(self.queue)
# Put a new item in the queue
def _put(self, item):
self.queue.append(item)
# Get an item from the queue
def _get(self):
return self.queue.popleft()
class PriorityQueue(Queue):
'''Variant of Queue that retrieves open entries in priority order (lowest first).
Entries are typically tuples of the form: (priority number, data).
'''
def _init(self, maxsize):
self.queue = []
def _qsize(self, len=len):
return len(self.queue)
def _put(self, item, heappush=heapq.heappush):
heappush(self.queue, item)
def _get(self, heappop=heapq.heappop):
return heappop(self.queue)
class LifoQueue(Queue):
'''Variant of Queue that retrieves most recently added entries first.'''
def _init(self, maxsize):
self.queue = []
def _qsize(self, len=len):
return len(self.queue)
def _put(self, item):
self.queue.append(item)
def _get(self):
return self.queue.pop()def heappush(heap, item):
"""Push item onto heap, maintaining the heap invariant."""
heap.append(item)
_siftdown(heap, 0, len(heap)-1)
def heappop(heap):
"""Pop the smallest item off the heap, maintaining the heap invariant."""
lastelt = heap.pop() # raises appropriate IndexError if heap is empty
if heap:
returnitem = heap[0]
heap[0] = lastelt
_siftup(heap, 0)
else:
returnitem = lastelt
return returnitemdef _siftdown(heap, startpos, pos):
newitem = heap[pos]
# Follow the path to the root, moving parents down until finding a place
# newitem fits.
while pos > startpos:
parentpos = (pos - 1) >> 1
parent = heap[parentpos]
if cmp_lt(newitem, parent):
heap[pos] = parent
pos = parentpos
continue
break
heap[pos] = newitem
def _siftup(heap, pos):
endpos = len(heap)
startpos = pos
newitem = heap[pos]
# Bubble up the smaller child until hitting a leaf.
childpos = 2*pos + 1 # leftmost child position
while childpos < endpos:
# Set childpos to index of smaller child.
rightpos = childpos + 1
if rightpos < endpos and not cmp_lt(heap[childpos], heap[rightpos]):
childpos = rightpos
# Move the smaller child up.
heap[pos] = heap[childpos]
pos = childpos
childpos = 2*pos + 1
# The leaf at pos is empty now. Put newitem there, and bubble it up
# to its final resting place (by sifting its parents down).
heap[pos] = newitem
_siftdown(heap, startpos, pos)