This is an interesting question from one of the lab assignments in Introduction to Computer Systems, fall 2018 at Peking University.
Problem Description
Given a 32-bit integer \(x\)(in two's complement), implement a C function that returns \(\frac{x}{6}\) using ONLY bit manipulations(operators like ~ ! | ^ & << >> +). Your function should behave exactly as the C expression x/6.
Hint: You can use the following formula(Formula 1)
\[ 2 = \frac{2+1}{2} \times \frac{2^2+1}{2^2} \times \frac{2^4+1}{2^4}\times\frac{2^8+1}{2^8}... \]
Inspiration
Since division is very slow using hardware, compilers often use optimizations to speed up division. For example, gcc will replace x/6 with x*171/1024 when x is relatively small, and implement x*171/1024 with shift left and shift right instructions. However, our function must cover all 32-bit two's complement integers, which means some other techniques are needed to make such replacement possible.
Resolution
We can change Formula 1 into the following form:
\[ \frac{1}{6} = \frac{1}{8} \times \frac{2^2+1}{2^2} \times \frac{2^4+1}{2^4}\times\frac{2^8+1}{2^8}... \]
Thus we can calculate this(Formula 2)
\[ p = \frac{x}{8} \times \frac{2^2+1}{2^2} \times \frac{2^4+1}{2^4}\times\frac{2^8+1}{2^8} \times \frac{2^{16}+1}{2^{16}} \]
Which can be implmented using a combination of shift-right and add operations(note that you must program carefully to avoid overflows). However, errors occur since expressions like x>>y return \(\lfloor x/2^y \rfloor\). We can counter the error by this(Formula 3)
\[ \frac{x}{6} = p + \frac{x}{6} - p = p + \frac{1}{6}(x-6p) \]
Since errors introduced by shift-rights will only cause \(p\) to be smaller than \(\frac{x}{6}\), we can deduce that \(x-6p > 0\). You can then approximate an upper bound of \(x-6p\), which depends on your implementation of Formula 2.
Suppose that \(x-6p < M\)(where M is small), then we can approximate \(\frac{1}{6}\) in Formula 3 using some \(X \approx \frac{1}{6}\) while keeping the equation true
\[ \lfloor \frac{1}{6} (x-6p)\rfloor = \lfloor X \cdot (x-6p) \rfloor \]
Choose a proper \(X = a/2^b\), and we are done!
/*
* divSix - calculate x / 6 without using /
* Example: divSix(6) = 1,
* divSix(2147483647) = 357913941,
* Legal ops: ~ ! | ^ & << >> +
* Max ops: 40
* Rating: 4
*/
int divSix(int x) {
int p;
int q,y,t;
x=x+(x>>31&5);
p=x>>3;
p=p+(p>>2);
p=p+(p>>4);
p=p+(p>>8);
p=p+(p>>16);
q=~p+1;
t=x+(q<<1)+(q<<2);
t=t+(t<<1)+(t<<3);
return p+(t>>6);
}