「学习笔记」英语论文写作技巧

主语和谓语的单数和复数要一致

英语中名词有它的单数和复数形式，动词也有它的单数和复数形式 , 二者要一致 . 单数主语 ( subject) 名词要用动词 (verb) 的单数 (singular) 形式 , 复数主语名词要用动词的复数 (plural) 形式 . 我们写中文的不太习惯英语的这种写法 , 很难做到不假思索地配对 , 需要特别留心才能不出错误，特别是当主语名词和动词被分开时 . 试看下面的例句 .
- A high percentage of peptides(肽) that are made of amino acids(氨基酸) are present in the sample.
- A high percentage 才是真正的主语，而不是邻近的 amino acids, 所以应该用 单数形式
- 宜改为 : A high percentage of peptides that are made of amino acids is present in the sample.
让事情更复杂的是英语名词被分为不同的种类，其中的一类叫集合名词 . 它既可以当单数用词也可以当复数用 . 集合名词当整体来讲时是单数，每个成员作为个体时用复数.
- The number of mice(老鼠) in the experiment was increased.
- A number of mice(老鼠) have died.
- All of the samples were analyzed.
- All of the safety procedures(程序) was strictly followed.
代词 none 既可以是单数也可以是复数.当none后面的词是单数时,用单数动词.当none后面的词是复数时.用复数动词.
- None of the information was useful.
- None of the animals were starved.
描写数量，重量，体积，时间等的词用单数，但如果是分次添加或减少时用复数. 在这个意义上同集合名词类似.
- 1.5 ml was added.
- 10 g was added .
- 6 hours was the required incubation time.
- 5 g were added stepwise. 强调分批次加入材料
简写的数量单位，如 mg, ml, s 等，单数和复数的写法是一样的 , 如 1mg, 5 mg. 一些词如 series(系列), type(类别), portion(部分), class(类别), 要用单数形式.
- A series of derivatives of penicillin(青霉素的衍生物) was prepared. (series)
- A large portion(一部分) of the reports is focused on how to deal with the increased cost(成本的增加). (portion)
- Data(数据), criteria(标准), phenomena(现象), media(媒体) 是复数形式，他们的单数形式分别是 datum, criterion, phenomenon, medium.

修饰语同主语名词关系上要一致

当用 1 ) 动名词 (gerund) ，2) 分词短句 (participle) ，3) 不定式短句 (infinitive) 作修饰语时，修饰语中的动词要同主句中的主语名词关系上要一致 .z这种情况很多出现在修饰句使用分词或动名词做主语，而主句使用被动语态的时候
- 科技杂志论文中有这种语法错误的情况较多 . 严格来讲这只是种语法错误，一般不影响对句子的内容的理解，所以很多作者不太注意 . 编辑和阅稿人有时也没有严格要求改正 . 比如下面就是 Nature 杂志 2006 年第 439 卷中的一个例子 .
- Using the enhancer GAL4/UAS expression system, short-term memory traces of aversive and appetitive olfactory conditioning have been assigned to output synapses of subsets of intrinsic neurons of the mushroom bodies.使用增强子GAL4 / UAS表达系统，已经分配了厌恶和食欲嗅觉调节的短期记忆痕迹来输出蘑菇体的内在神经元的子集的突触。分词中使用的是we或I作为主语，但是后面是短期记忆痕迹作为主语。
(1)动名词
- After finishing the purification, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied.
  We or I 是动名词 finishing 形式上的主语，同主句的主语 activity 不一致 .
  宜改为 : After purification was finished, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied. (将After前的分句加上谓语)
  或 : After finishing the purification, we studied the activity of the isolated compound.(将后面句子的主语保持和分句一致)
- Treated with the new drug, the blood cholesterol levels of participants were lowered by an average of 30%
  宜改为 : Treated with the new drug, participants showed an average of 30% decrease in their blood cholesterol levels.
(2) 分词短语
- The iron concentration was determined using the Fenton reaction method.
  The iron concentration 同 using the Fenton reaction method 关系上不一致 .
  宜改为 : The iron concentration was determined by the Fenton reaction method. 被Fenton reaction method确定
  或 : We determined the iron concentration using the Fenton reaction method. 我们使用Fenton reaction method确定
- When measuring the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred.
  when分句中的主语为人we或I,但是后面的句子是用被动语态，air samples才是主语
  宜改为 : When the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide is measured, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred.
(3) 不定式短句
- To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, an expanded population of biking athletes was surveyed.
  不定式短语的形式主语是 we or I ，同主句主语 population 不一致 .
  宜改为 : To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, we surveyed an expanded population of biking athletes.
- To confirm the diagnosis, blood test was ordered.
  宜改为 : To confirm the diagnosis, the doctor ordered blood test.

主语和主语的行动(谓语)在逻辑上要一致

由于一些中文和英文的表达方式不同，把中文直接翻译成相应的英文会不同 . 一个经常被引用的语句是 “price is cheap ”. 中文可以说价格便宜 , 但英文只能说价格高或低 . 物品可以说 cheap or expensive. 用中文的表达方式来写英文 , 会出现主语和主语的行动在逻辑上不一致 . 在写一个句子时要注意行动的真正主语名词是什么.下面是一些例子 .
- The highest antibiotic production was obtained at 48 h.
  不是 production 而是 production yield.
  宜改为 : The highest antibiotic production yield was obtained at 48 h. (在48小时获得最高的抗生素产量)
- The scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction. (羟基自由基的清除活性基于芬顿反应)
  不是 activity 而是 assay of activity
  宜改为 : The assay of scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction. (羟基自由基清除活性的测定基于芬顿反应)
- The pharmacological compounds of ginseng were identified.(鉴定了人参的药理化合物)
  药物活性化合物应该是 pharmacologically active compounds.
  宜改为 : The pharmacologically active compounds of ginseng were identified.(鉴定了人参的药物活性化合物)

代名词和其代理的先行词要一致

代名词和其代理的先行词要在人称 ,单数或复数,和性别上一致.一些常见的代词是: he, his (阳性单数); she, her (阴性单数); it, its (单数); they, their, these, those (复数); that, this (单数). 比如下面的例句中 , compounds 和 their 一致 , protein 和 it 一致 .
- Many related compounds were synthesized and their antivirus activities were studied.
  合成了许多相关化合物，并研究了它们的抗病毒活性。
  Growth hormone is a protein. It promotes human body growth.
  生长激素是一种蛋白质。它促进人体生长。
- 下面的例句中,the 应该用 their 取代 .
  The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from the protective effects against oxidative stresses.
  化合物A和化合物B的潜在抗氧化能力可以从对氧化应激的保护作用中推断出来。
  宜改为 : The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from their protective effects against oxidative stresses.
用代名词时除了要保持一致外,还要避免代理不清的情况出现,以免不清楚它们到底指什么而引起误解． 通常是前句有and的情况以致于不知道后句的代名词的含义
- The crude sample was dissolved in water and extracted with organic solvent. It was then evaporated to yield the product.
  It 指 organic layer 还是指 water layer? 不明确，最好不用 it.
  宜改为： The crude sample was dissolved in water and extracted with organic solvent. The organic layer was then evaporated to yield the product.
- During meal hormones are released after which blood flow increases in the stomach.
  在用餐期间，释放激素，之后胃中的血流增加。
  Which 既可以代表 meal 也可以代表 hormones, 容易产生误解 .
  宜改为： During meal hormones are released. After their release stomach blood flow increases.

位置的强调作用

在英语写作中，若要强调某件事情，就把它放在句子的前面 .中文写作中 ,有关句子的条件 , 时间等的修饰句都是放在前面，而主句总是放在后面 . 而英文中即可以把条件或修饰句放在前面，也可以放在后面.放在前面就表示你要强调修饰句的条件 . 比如:
- Before the hurricane arrived, most of the people have moved out.
- Most of the people have moved out before the hurricane arrived.
在英语中两种位置关系都可以 . 前者强调在 hurricane 来之前，后者强调 moved out . 而在中文中，只有一种说法，反过来说 ” 大多数人都离开了，在hurricane来之前 ” 就不对了. 按中文的位置关系直译成英文, 往往会不确切. 同样按英文的位置关系直译成中文也是怪怪的
- 我上小学的孩子回家来喊 “我要吃冰激凌今天, 我没吃好长时间了”, 就是英文 “I want ice cream today. I have not eaten it for a long time.” 的直接翻译.
科技写作中，一般还是把主句先写出来，除非你想强调修饰的是条件
- Through scavenging free radicals, antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases.
  抗氧化剂通过清除自由基在防止复杂疾病方面发挥重要作用。
  宜改为： Antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases through scavenging free radicals.
- In microbial fermentation, phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient.
  在微生物发酵中，磷通常是主要的生长限制营养素。
  宜改为： Phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient in microbial fermentation.
主动句中事情的执行者 ( 作者 ) 放在前面，有强调事情的执行者 ( 作者 ) 的意思 , 而不是要研究的事物 . 被动句强调要研究的事物 , 这也是为什么科技论文中被动句用得比较多的原因之一.
- We studied their effects on cell growth. 强调 We.
  Their effects on cell growth were studied. 强调 Their effects.

修饰词与被修饰词要临近

科技写作要求严谨，明确.为了严格定义一个事物,往往要加上限制性的修饰词或短句.比如描写实验用的 mice 时，一般不会只说 mice ，而是用类似“NCI-H23 tumor bearing female athymic nude mice” 的描述 .前面有5个修饰词来定义研究用的mice 这时一般把最窄的定义写在最前面，最广的定义写在后面.修饰语要靠近同被修饰的对象 .因修饰语和被修饰的词被隔开，而造成意思混乱的情况很多 .下面是一些例子.
- Inhibition of Acid B on xanthine oxidase was also reported.
  还报道了酸性黄嘌呤氧化酶的抑制。
  Inhibition of 后面应紧跟 xanthine oxidase , 而不是 Acid B, 隔开后句子就很难读 .
  宜改为： Inhibition of xanthine oxidase by Acid B was also reported.
  还报道了酸B对黄嘌呤氧化酶的抑制作用
- The chelating activities for ferrous ion of the Acid B were assessed.
  评估了酸B的亚铁离子的螯合活性
  The chelating activities 后面应紧跟 Acid B , 而不是 ferrous ion.
  宜改为： The chelating activities of the Acid B for ferrous ion were assessed.
  评估了酸B对亚铁离子的螯合活性
- Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity.
  降低功率代表给电子能力，这可以作为潜在抗氧化活性的重要指标。
  用 which 开头的修饰句 , 是要修饰 reducing power , 而不是修饰 electron donating capacity , 所以要紧跟在 reducing power 后面 .
  宜改为： Reducing power, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity, represents the electron donating capacity. 或 : Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity. It may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity.

主语和谓语在句子中的位置要靠近

要使句子的可读性强,有两个因素特别需要注意.
一是句子的长短要合适. 研究表明一个句子中有 13-20个字时最合适阅读.太短的句子有零碎的感觉，而太长的句子读起来有困难.
二是主语和谓语动词要靠近.如果被隔开太远，就会有被隔离的感觉 ,句子读起来就会比较困难，虽然从语法上来讲是可行的.这主要同人类大脑处理文字信息的过程和方式有关.当人们读到主语时,自然而然地期望知道主语后面的行动,也就是结果.在行动(谓语)出现之前,读者需要记住主语是什么,同时又要阅读和理解下面的文字读起来很累.就像要屏住呼吸等待要发生的事情,只有当谓语出现,知道了主题的行动后,才能呼出这口气.时间长了自然不舒服.
- Lincomycin , one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which was first isolated more than fifty years ago , is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.
- 宜改为： Lincomycin is one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which were first isolated more than fifty years ago. It is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.

名词作形容词

科技写作中经常会用名词来作为形容词使用，如 room temperature, university researchers.
当用一个名词来修饰另一个名词时，意义一般都很清楚 . 但当三个名词放在一起，或两个名词前再加一个形容词时，就要小心.有的情况下,3个或3个以上的名词放在一起,表达的意思很清楚，也是一种很简洁的表达方式. 如 : blood white cell number, prostate cancer patient, Beijing University medical school student.
但有时会有多种讲法.Top university researchers可以是 researchers of (only) top university也可以是 (all) university researchers who are top.多个名词排在一起,即使表达明确，也给拥挤的感觉.应避免使用多个名词的修饰方式.最好的办法是用介词或其它方式来把他们分开,以便清楚表达它们的修饰关系.多个名词罗列的情况经常发生，下面多举一些例子.
- He wrote the quality control group reports.
  宜改为： He wrote the reports of the quality control group.
- The patient showed chronic liver disease symptoms.
  宜改为： The patient showed symptoms of chronic liver disease.
- The human brain oxygen level is quite high.
  宜改为： The oxygen level in human brain is quite high.
- Their specific inhibition producing effects on fat containing food intake were assessed.
  宜改为： Their specific effects of inhibition on the intake of fat containing food were assessed.
- The present investigation evaluated various specific drug sample combinations.
  宜改为： The present investigation evaluated various combinations of specific drug samples

句子的时态(有待考证)

科技论文中基本上只用现在时和过去时两种时态.有的作者偶尔会使用完成时.完成时一般只用于多次并一直在研究的情况.其他的时态用得很少.论文中的时态有它特定的意义.时态用来表明科研成果的认知程度
当描述已发表的文献成果时,用现在时,因为已发表的成果被承认是事实.描述未发表的实验和结果时,用过去时，因为还没有得到承认,并且是写论文以前做的事情.由于科技论文中的时态的特定用法，写作中经常需要转换时态.一句话中都可能用两个时态.总起来说，Abstract中要讲述自己的实验和结论,要用过去时.Introduction中要总结文献和问题 , 以现在时为主,也用一些过去时.Methods 和 Results 都是讲自己的实验和结果,用过去时.而 Discussion中则需要根据描述文献还是自己的实验，需要交换使用现在时和过去时 .
在引述文献结果时，过去发表的结论可以认为是已经被承认的事实，应该用现在时.但引述过去的实验时,特别是以作者为主语时,因是过去做的事情，应该用过去时.
- Wang showed that the rate of growth is dependent on temperature.
  Smith studied the growth rate and reported that it is dependent on temperature.
若作者不是主语 , 而作者的研究是主语时，用现在时.
- Investigation by Wang shows that the rate of growth is dependent on temperature.
当描述自己的实验和实验结果时，应用过去时.因为是在写文章以前做的事情,并且还没被接受为事实(发表).
- We measured its plasma concentration and found that it was two times higher in obesity patients than in normal population.
讲述 table 或 figure 中显示的结果时,可以用现在时.
- Table 4 shows that growth was dependent on temperature.
计算的结果和统计分析结果应该用现在时.
- The calculated value is significantly lower indicating most of the dissolved compound was degraded.

主动句和被动句

许多人认为科技论文都应该用被动句，不要加入个性的成分. 现在越来越多的杂志提倡使用主动句 , 因为主动句更简洁和明确. 把 “ it is reported by the authors of this paper that” 改为 “We reported that” 就显得更简要和直接 . 下面是个例子 :
In 2002 we reported the synthesis of anthramycin analogues and their DNA binding activities studied by gel electrophoresis.
但实验部分还是主要使用被动句. 用 “The drug concentration was measured by HPLC” 而一般不用 “ We measured the drug concentration by HPLC”.

标点符号的使用

英文科技论文写作中经常使用的标点符号有逗号，句号和分号.冒号和问号使用的情况很少，而惊叹号几乎就不会被使用.现在分号使用的也逐渐减少,一般用句号取代.一篇论文中只是使用逗号和句号也是正常的.句号的使用比较明确,下面主要对逗号的使用作一些说明.逗号虽然很小，但要表达清楚你要传达的信息却离不开它.比如下面的例子，没有逗号时句子不好读.加逗号后,逗号放在不同的地方,意思完全不同 .
- Although it was incubated at 50 o C for 24 hours no reaction occurred.
- Although it was incubated at 50 o C for 24 hours, no reaction occurred.
- Although it was incubated at 50 o C, for 24 hours no reaction occurred.
逗号是用来分开两个独立的句子，下面的句子是可以的 .
- Ethanol is used to replace gasoline, and it is produced from corn.
下面的句子就不合适 , 因为逗号后面不是一个完整的句子 .
- Ethanol is used to replace gasoline, and is produced from corn.
当一个长的语句出现在句子的前面时，要用逗号分开.若语句不长，不需要停顿，也可以不用逗号 .
- During the process of solvent removal, some crystalline solid was formed.
- During the process precipitate was formed.

数字的写法

科技论文离不开数字.数字的一种写法是用英文字，如 three, thirteen. 另一种是写阿拉伯数字.具体用哪种写法可参照以下几个简单的规则.

少于10的整数用英文字，大于或等于10的数字用阿拉伯数字

thee experiments
one assay
23 birds
6,500 miles

有小数点和单位的数字用阿拉伯数字

1.2 hours
5 percent
3 am
Page 3

在句子开头的数字用英文字

英语的一个句子的开始是用大写字母来表明的.如果是一个数字,那就不能起到表示一个句子开始的作用.所以不能用数字开始一个句子.这时要把数字用英文字写出,或最好能修改句子不用数字开头.一个经常被使用的办法是把表示数量的数字放到括号中去.
10 ml ethanol was added.(不推荐)
Ten ml ethanol was added.
Ethanol (10 ml) was added.
30 eggs were used daily during the study.
宜改为： During the study, 30 eggs were used daily.

当两个数字前后并列出现时 , 一个要用英文，另一个使用数字表示，当两个数字前后并列出现时，若都写成数字或文字，容易产生混乱.

three eight-rat groups 改成 three 8-rats groups
3 8-rats groups 改成 three 8-rats groups
two 5-day study
12 two-engine airplanes

小于1的数字的单位用单数，大于1的数字的单位复数

0.25 gram
0.8 second
1.5 grams
3.45 seconds

零后面的单位用复数

zero meters
0 meters

单位的缩写单数和复数是一样的

0.1 ml
15 ml

冠词的使用

使用冠词是英语的特点，中文没有相应字词.对定冠词the和不定冠词a/an 的使用往往掌握不好,最常见的是漏掉 不定冠词 .
- There has been increase in loss of agricultural land.
  宜改为： There has been an increase in the loss of agricultural land.
- Stresses at various locations in crank are calculated by using sets of unit load cases applied to single throw FE model .
  宜改为： Stresses at various locations in the crank are calculated by using sets of unit load cases applied to a single throw FE model.
定冠词the多用
- The alcohol is produced by the fermentation of the grains like corn and wheat.
  酒精是通过玉米和小麦等谷物的发酵生产的。
  宜改为： Alcohol is produced by the fermentation of grains like corn and wheat.
  Alcohol 和 grains 都是泛指 , 不需要加定冠词 the.
除了是第一个字，题目中的冠词不要大写
- The Dependence of Crystal Growth on the Solvents.

同位词的使用

写作中有时需要对新引述的事物或概念做简单解释和描述，但单写一个句子又会打断前后的连接.这时用同位词来解释是一个经常使用的方式.
- The Hallervorden – Spatz syndrome, a neurological disorder associated with iron accumulation, has been linked to a decline in cysteine dioxygenase activity.
  Hallervorden - Spatz综合征是一种与铁积累相关的神经系统疾病，与半胱氨酸双加氧酶活性下降有关。
同位词应该同修饰的事物等位,说明是什么,而不能用来解释要修饰的事物的性质.下面句子中的同位词的使用就不合适.
Penicillin, not stable in water , was developed during WWII.
青霉素，在水中不稳定，在第二次世界大战时被发明

多余的用词

The supernatant was collected and concentrated in vacuum to evaporate the solvent.
- Concentrate 就是 evaporate the solvent ，后面的 to evaporate the solvent 是多余的.类似的把一些词的含义再次重复说明是最容易出现的多余用词.类似的 8PM in the evening, blue in color, small in size, in vivo animal models, in vitro cell cultures 都有多余用词的情况 .
The results of activities of tested compounds were listed in Table 1.
- Results 是多余的.中文中经常写作“ 实验结果”“ 活性检测结果”，但英文中“结果”是不需要翻译出来的.
  宜改为： The activities of tested compounds were listed in Table 1.
下面的例句中， their 就是 acid B and D,二者要去掉一个
- The chemical mechanisms of their antioxidant activities of acid B and D were not well understood.
  宜改为： The chemical mechanisms of the antioxidant activities of acid B and D were not well understood.
一些词组，如 it should be mentioned, it should be pointed out, it was found, it was determined, … 都是冗长和委婉地说法，应该直接说明.

用字要准确

每个科学术语都有其特定的含义, 使用要准确．

推理用语的使用

从实验观察和数据到结论的推理过程中，在事实和理论的关系上可能有从“同…一致”，“表示”，“证明”等不同的强弱关系，在选择用词上要合理. 英语中经常使用的词是is compatible with, imply, suggest, indicate, show, prove. 这基本上是一个从弱到强的顺序.
- is compatible with(兼容), is consistent with(和…一致), in line with(符合) 表示是个合理的解释, 不矛盾, 但可能还有其他的解释.
- imply(意味着), suggest(建议)表示支持现在的结论，这个结论比其它的更合理, 但不能证明就是这个结论.
- indicate(表明), show(显示), demonstrate(表明显示) 就更确定, 表示几乎就是这个结论了. 其他的可能性不大, 但还不是百分之百的证明.
- prove 表示完全肯定，没有任何其他可能性了.科研中很少有这种情况.用prove要特别注意.

专业术语及上下文用词要保持一致

论文从头到尾用字要保持一致

尽量少些简写

作者自己熟悉的简写，读者不一定知道，所以应尽量少用简写. 必需时, 宜于第一次出现全名时在其后用括号标出简写．例如对于卷积神经网络Convolutional neural network(CNN)应该在第一次出现时就被标注这个简写名称

不要用缩略语

正式地写作中, 不要使用如 didn’t, don’t, can’t, haven’t….缩约语. 应该写完整形式, did not, do not, cannot (一个字), have not …

避免使用俚语

虽然非英语国家的作者不是很好区分什么是俚语，但还是要注意不要使用像 a lot, sort of, pretty good…的口头用语

经常使用，但容易出现错误的词

Above

经常用来指前面提到过的,表示 “如前所述,as discussed above”“前面的方法,the above method” 等.但above不确定用起来容易,读起来不易明白,容易造成表达不清.

former latter

类似的词还有former和latter,由于会产生误解，所以应该避免使用

adapt,adept,adopt

Adapt是动词,适应;Adept是形容词,熟练的;Adopt是动词,采用.

Affect, Effect, Impact

Affect 是动词，影响 (influence) 的意思
Effect 是名词，是结果 (result), 影响的意思
Impact 当冲击，碰撞讲,自然科学不同参数的相互影响一般不用impact来描写,用 affect或influence 更合适 .

agree to,agree with

agree to 是同意
agree with 是一致

Alternate, Alternative

alternate是交替的，轮流的
alternative是另外的，选择的

And 和 But

And 是一个非常有用的字.它是一个最被经常用到的连接词,可以连接类似的词,词组或句子.用and连接的词,词组或句子是相关联但又各自独立的.当排列三个以上的词时，最后的一个词之前加 and.其它的词后都加逗号.
- And 之前也可以不加逗号
- 一般认为and之前加逗号是美国写法,不加逗号是英国写法
- 用and连接句子时若两个句子都很简单中间可以不加逗号,但是中间加个逗号也正确
- 两个比较复杂的句子中间一定要加逗号，以便于阅读和理解
- 用and来开始一个句子也是可以的.and起到对一些相关和并列的描述来连接的作用.
But的用法同and很类似,只是它连接的句子是对照和相反的.

Apparently(apparent)

有明显的,obvious,clear和貌似的,seeming两种用法.具体是哪种讲法,句子的前后内容可能会有提示.在不能确定的情况下,应避免使用,选用obvious或seeming更好
Apparently也是一样，选用obviously或seemingly

Appear

Appear 有"出现,to come into view" 和"好象 , seem"两种讲法 , 一般在科技论文中,当" 好象,seem"的讲法用的要多些.

As

As有很多不同的讲法它有表示因果关系的用途,类似because和since.但 as 表示的因果关系最弱,since 在中间,because的因果关系最明确.所以不要用 as 来表示因果关系.用 because 或 since.
As 用来表示“同样地”,“像…一样”.
- The genetically engineered apple tastes as good as the natural one.
As当“在…的时候,when”讲
- As the snow started to melt, the team went back into the forest to collect samples.

Average, mean, median

Average和mean都是平均的意思,mean是个数学用语.Median是一个系列中的中间的那个值.

Because, because of

用 because 来表示因果关系是最明确的.Because后面写句子,Because of后面用名词.
For和since表示的因果关系要弱些,用since时往往强调的是当时的情况,时间,地点等.有中文的“既然”的意思.As表示的因果关系最弱 .

Below

同 above 一样，所指含糊，应避免使用.

Beside, besides

Beside 是 “ 在 … 旁边 ”，besides是“ 除了 … ”.

Between, among

Between 是两个人或事之间 , among 是两个以上人或事之间 .

But

同and一样,but 是一个被经常使用的连接词.它连接的句子有对照和相反的意思.在连接比较简单的两个句子,并不影响句子的流畅的时候,but 之前可以不加逗号.
- He felt better but did not fully recover after taking the medicine.
连接两个比较长的句子时候,but 前应加逗号,把两个句子分开.
- Scientists spent months to figure out why the satellite did not reach its orbit, but they never find the truth.
But 也可以放在句子的开头.
- For a long time people realize there has to be a natural ligand for the cannabinoid receptor. But its identity was only elucidated recently.
用逗号把 but 隔开是不对
- But,its identity was only elucidated recently.

Cannot

Cannot是一个字，can not应写成 cannot

Case

Case 只是起到填充空间(filler)的作用,没有实质意义.应避免使用类似“in the case of”的词组

Compare with, compare to

Compare with 是比较的意思，而 compare to 是比作的意思 .

Compose, consist , comprise

Compose当“组成,构成”讲,是及物动词.一般用“xxx is composed of xxx”的形式.如：An atom is composed of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons.
Consist当“有 … 组成”讲,是不及物动词.一般用“xxx consists of xxx”的形式.如: An atom consists of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons.
Comprise当"包括"讲,也有“由 … 组成”的意思.到底是什么用法,很容易弄不明白,所以干脆不要用这个字

Continual,continuous

Continual 是经常发生的,continuous是连续和不间断的

Correlated with, correlated to

Correlate with (有关联,找出一一对应的关系)是正确用法,correlate to是不对的.Related to(与…有关)是正确.

Different from, different than

事物之间不同用 different from,人物之间不同用 different than. Different from 不能写成 different than.

Due to

Due to 是 “应归于 …” 或 ”由 … 引起 ”的意思 (caused by).后面要跟名词,同 because of 不同.但 due to 表达的也有因果关系的意思.如果你不是很确定,应避免使用 due to,用 because of 或 caused by.

Equipment(设备器材)

单数和复数都是 equipment，没有equipments的写法

Few, a few

Few 是很少 ,强调没有多少, 有否定的意思. A few 也是很少, 但强调有一些, 虽然不多，有肯定的意思.Few 形容可数名词，little形容不可数名词.Little,a little的用法同few,a few类似 .

Flammable, inflammable, nonflammable

Flammable, inflammable 都是易燃的意思 . nonflammable 才是他们的反义词.

Following

Following 是形容词,表示 “接着的,下述的”.
The behavior of the mouse was carefully monitored in the following days.
它也可以是动词 follow 的名词形式.
Following the flood, many wild lives found new habitant.

Minimal, trivial

Minimal 是最小的 , trivial 是轻微的,不重要的.

Percent,percentage,percentile

Percent 跟在数字后面，以代替 %,57 percent(57%).Percentage是百分率,percentage不能同数字一起用.可以说small percentage or large percentage.Percentile 是一个统计学用语,表示在 100 个分组中事物出现的机率.

Proven

Proven 是形容词,proved是过去式.

Provided that

Provided that 连接词,(假如).Providing 是现在分词.

Remainder, remaining

都可以当"剩余"讲

Since

有 “ 自从 …” 表示时间的意思,也可以用来表示因果关系,见 because.

Subsequently(随后), consequently(因此)

Subsequently 表示时间顺序，consequently表示逻辑推理结果.

Such as

一般用逗号从主句分开，当 such as 后面排列的名词只有 1-2 个时,不影响句子的流畅,可以不用逗号分开.排列的事物和概念要相等.
Heavy metals such as lead are especially toxic to children.
The river is heavily polluted with heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.

Than

用 than 来比较的两个对象要一致
有些词代表最终状态,不能进行比较.一些这样的词有full,absolute,complete,unique,extinct,permanent,universal,等

That, which

That/which 经常用来引导修饰从句.如果修饰从句可以省略掉而不影响句子的完整性,也就是非限制性从句,用 which,并用逗号把修饰从句从主句分开
The recovered dogs, which were treated with antibiotics, are released.
如果修饰从句不可以省略掉,也就是限制性从句, 那就用 that ,并不用逗号分开
Dogs that were treated with antibiotics recovered.
限制性从句和非限制性从句在句子中的作用有很大区别.第一句话中,就是指 “recovered dogs”,没有别的狗.第二句表示除了“ Dogs that were treated with antibiotics ”,还有其他的狗.

Toward, towards

Toward, towards 的用法是一样的。美国用 toward , 英国用 towards.

Use, using, utilize, employ

我们写作时经常会使用 using 这个字,但用 using 时经常会导致同主句的主语名词不一致,应避免使用.可用 with 或 by 取代.
Using the reductive reaction, reducing power of VC was examined.
- 宜改为 : The reducing power of VC was examined with the reductive reaction.
Utilize 是利用 , 有效使用的意思 , 同 use 不同 . 不能相互替代 .
Employ 雇用人 , 使从事于 ….

While

While 既可以用来做表示时间的连接词,“ 当 … 的时候 ”.也可以用来表示转折和逻辑的连接词,当” 然而，虽然，尽管 ” 讲.为避免含义不清,用 when 或 although 取代更好.