光电效应的历史
01 光电效应
一、原文字幕
Albert Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for the photoelectric effect. But why at the time just like now , Einstein was far more famous for his work on relativity. Well, it all has to do with a man named Philipp Lenard whose experiments in the photoelectric effect inspired Einstein’s theories.
Leonard is a fascinating person who first inspired and befriended Einstein, and then due to an odd combination of his love of physics,
scientific disappointments, nationalism and mental weakness, became one of Einstein’s greatest nemesis. This is a physics story and a story of a man’s descent into madness and fascism. so buckle up and let’s go.
A young German scientist named Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in May of 1887.
see. Hertz had just discovered radio waves by adding an antenna to an induction coil, so that large sparks at one end of the room could be caught by making little sparks in a receiving coil a distance away. Because the spark in the receiving coil was really small, Hertz decided to put it in a dark box. So that the light from the bright spark from the induction coil wouldn’t distract him. To his surprise
when he did this the spark and the receiver became, “decidedly smaller.”
Hertz started to put all sorts of screens between his transmitting spark and his receiving spark, and found that glass would reduce the spark, and the quartz did not. As glass blocks ultraviolet light and quartz does not. Hertz decided that the energy from the ultraviolet
light must be amplifying the electric spark.
Aside from that one observation Hertz didn’t attempt to “any theory respecting the manner in which the observed phenomenon are brought about.”
This was eventually called the photoelectric effect. Photo for light, electric for electric.
Although Hertz didn’t come up with any theories. many other people tried, including a 27 year old Hungarian grad student of German descent named Philipp Lenard who was struggling to get a permanent position. At the time in Germany 27 was considered quite old not to have a permanent position in physics.
I know anyway Lenard observed that when smooth metal plates were hit with strong ultraviolet light they start looking a little less smooth.
Leonard had this interesting theory that the electricity could only be carried by dust not by gases. And that the UV light was freeing the dust which caused the plates to look rough. This theory was roundly ignored by basically everyone and seemed to go nowhere. however three years later Lenard’s luck changed as he managed to get a job as an assistant to his hero, Heinrich Hertz.
At the time Hertz was studying cathode rays or invisible rays that are made in a vacuum and can make phosphorous glow. Hertz found the cathode rays could travel through thin pieces of metal. And he told Leonard to make a vacuum tube with an aluminum barrier.
You might ask why Hertz didn’t do the experiment himself. it was probably because Hertz was starting to get terrible headaches and feel sick all of this time.
Left alone in the laboratory, Leonard not only studied cathode rays with an aluminum barrier between different vacuums, he also took it a step further and made an aluminum window between the vacuum tube and the air. And found to his surprise the cathode rays could travel a few inches in air.
Lenard was sure that his Lenard tube would finally make his name in science. And he published his results in December of 1893.
Tragically Hertz died mere weeks later, and Leonard took time off his research to edit German and English memorials of Hertz’s work and biographies. This was an unfortunate timing for distraction for Leonard, as just the next year another German scientist named Wilhelm Roentgen was experimenting with a Lenard tube with a heavier phosphorescent screen, and discovered a new ray which Roentgen called x-ray. suddenly the whole world was in an x-ray craze.
At first Leonard was excited by this discovery, and wrote Roentgen a nice letter: " because your remarkable discovery caused such rremarkable attention in the farthest circles, my modest work has also come into the limelight." And at first Leonard was correct as they both started receiving numerous medals, including the Rumford medal in England and the Matteucci Medel in Italy.
Leonard finally got an associate professor position and after setting up his laboratory decided to get married. As he put it " there was an abundance of daughters of professors who were waiting to be married."
Soon he was made a full professor and his career and family life seemed secure. However in 1897 an Englishman named J.J.Thompson proved that the cathode ray wasn’t a type of light at all. But was instead a beam of charged
particles that we now call electrons. With the discovery of the electron Lenard found that all of his work on the cathode ray was made moot. Even worse if the cathode ray was a particle, and the X ray was a beam of ultra ultraviolet light which is what we now think. Then Leonard’s discovery the cathode rays could travel in air had very little to do with Roentgen discovery of x-rays. In other words, leonard thought that Roentgen had just discovered a new type of cathode ray in air, but really Roentgen had discovered something new and Leonard hadn’t.
It was a crushing defeat. Leonard repeated JJ Thompson’s experiments and found that, in every respect the Rays behaved like moving masses carrying negative charge.
Then Lenard had an ingenious idea what if his old theory the charges were only carried by dust was right if the dust
was really just electrons or cathode rays. In October of 1899 Lenard published the generation of cathode rays with ultraviolet light, where he demonstrated the ultraviolet light produced electrons by shining ultraviolet light through a quartz screen into a vacuum tube and studying the photoelectric ray inside the tube.
Unfortunately for Lenard JJ Thompson published similar results at about the same time. So he felt like he didn’t get the acknowledgment for that discovery. Then, what should have been a breakthrough to understanding the photoelectric effect happened in December of 1900. That is when a German scientist named Max Planck published his equations for blackbody radiation where he assumed that light came in little energy elements with energy equal to a constant times the frequency of light. This would explain why ultraviolet light could have the energy to produce the photoelectric effect, the visible light did not. As ultraviolet light has higher frequency and therefore is composed of elements of higher energy.
However Lenard didn’t see the connection and frankly neither did Planck. Meanwhile in 1901 the Nobel decided to give the very first prize in physics to Renkin for discovering the x-ray without mentioning Lenard at all. Lenard was very upset and pushed everywhere that he was unfairly treated. Determined to make his mark some other way.
Lenard continued to study the particles created by ultraviolet light in a vacuum tube. Leonard found that if he added a voltage the wrong way he could drive the electrons back to the irradiated plate. “In the same way as a stone thrown upward falls back to the ground.”
Now he could experimentally add just enough voltage to drive back the electrons and therefore measure the maximum energy of the electrons which is obviously related to the speed of the electron. To his surprise the initial velocities are independent of the intensity of the light. In other words more intense light created more electrons, but it didn’t give the individual electrons more energy. What did this mean ?
Well, Leonard had an interesting but it turned out wrong conclusion. Leonard thought that since the speed of electrons was independent of the intensity light, that the energy didn’t come from the light at all. instead he thought the light released energy inherent in the molecule, like "the fuse and firing a loaded gun. "
This triggering theory was generally accepted as true, and even as late as 1909 was written as one of the generally accepted laws of physics.
Then in 1905 three events drastically changed Leonard’s life. The first was that Leonard was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in cathode rays. This despite the fact that 14 top scientists nominated JJ Thompson for discovering the electron, and only two scientists nominated Leonard. Don’t worry Thompson won it the next year.
In his speech accepting the award Leonard freely acknowledged the work of others including many Jewish scientists, and admitted that he wasn’t always the person who brought ideas to fruition, saying “I have by no means always numbered among those who plucked the fruit, but I’ve repeatedly been only one of those who planted or cared for the trees.”
The second event was in June of 1905 of patent clerk published the paper, where he proposed looking at many phenomena including the photoelectric effect. If light came in little energy packets, this view of light led to a photoelectric effect equation which worked with Leonard’s results, but we’re not proven by them.
The third event was in that same miracle year Einstein published a paper on special relativity. At first Einstein and his ideas didn’t offend Leonard. In fact Leonard or possibly an assistant saw how often Einstein referred to Leonard’s work and sent him a copy of his latest paper. Einstein replied with an enthusiastic letter in return. It took Leonard for years to reply Einstein. But when he did he was effusive with his praise.
Especially considering that Leonard was a Nobel Prize winning physicist and Einstein was virtually unknown. Leonard gushed “what could be more exciting for me than when a profound comprehensive thinker like you finds favor with some points from my work.”
Around this time 1909 Einstein learned that a friend of his Jacob Laud had gotten a position as an assistant to leonard. Einstein wrote Laud " I think the opportunity to work with Leonard is worth far more than the assistantship and income combined, Leonard is a great master and inventive thinker." However Laud’s relationship with leonard quickly soured and einstein’s went with it.
Leonard was a big believer in something called the ether, an invisible weightless material that fills the entire universe, even in a vacuum. So that light will have something to vibrate. After all they thought if you have a wave you need to have a wave in something. In fact Leonard insisted that electrons were really just pieces of ether. However by 1910 this magical material was losing ground because of Einstein and relativity. As the odd effects attributed to the ether could just be because of the limitations of the speed of light.
Laub complained to Einstein that leonard was wasting his time on useless experiments. Einstein wrote back “Leonard’s recent lecture on these fanciful ethers appears to me almost infantile. Further the study he commanded a view borders on the absurd. I’m sorry you must spend your time on such stupidity.”
Einstein tried to get Laud the new position which earned Leonard’s ire for both men. Leonard started treating Laud very cruelly. And when Einstein heard of it he wrote Laud : “Leonard is really a twisted fellow so entirely composed of gall and intrigued. However, you’re considerably better off than him. You can get away from him. However he must do business with this monster until he bites the dust.”
Then in 1914 an American named Robert Millikan published his work on the photoelectric effect. That he had started to disprove Einstein, but had shockingly confirmed every detail of Einstein’s photoelectric equation. The triggering theory was completely destroyed.
In addition that same year was the beginning of World War one which leonard was a vocal german supporter. I n fact Leonard signed the manifesto to the civilized world, which included the line “Without German militarism German civilization would be wiped off the face of the earth.”
Not only did Einstein refused to sign the manifesto, he co-wrote a rebuttal. When Germany lost the war Leonard was devastated.
And to make matters worse, very same year an English astronomer used the solar clips to prove the gravity could bend light. In other words he experimentally proved relativity. Einstein became the most famous physicists in the world, and most scientists believed in relativity.
Jealous and heartbroken, Leonard decided that it was all because Einstein was Jewishm, and it was a big Jewish conspiracy to get rid of ether, push relativity, quantized the photoelectric effect, destroyed Germany and discredit him.
Leonard made it his life work to remove Jewish science from Germany. He tried to keep all positions for pure Germans. And he also used his influence with the Nobel Committee as a previous winner to try to keep Einstein from joining their ranks.
In 1919 Leonard managed to get his friend and fellow anti-semite Johannes Stark a Nobel Prize, despite the fact that Leonard was his one and only nominator that year. By 1920 Leonard was heading the anti Einstein and anti relativity groups with speeches debates and anti-semitic publications.
The 1921 Nobel Committee became so confused by the Pro and anti relativity factions, they didn’t give anyone a Nobel Prize that year. The next year a young Swedish scientist named Carl Oseen found a way around the whole mess, and suggested that Einstein should win the Nobel Prize for the previous year. “Especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.” Then Leonard went completely off the rails.
By 1924, Leonard was a devoted fascist. and he and Stark published an article in the newspaper, saying “Hitler and his comrades appear to us as God’s gift from the times of old when races were pure.”
By the 1930s Leonard started publishing books of science separated by their races, which became the backbone of Nazi science.
In 1933 Einstein fled Germany never to return. Leonard prided in how he drove Einstein other Jewish scientists out of Germany. And had all Jewish work burnt. Although he would have preferred their death, writing to Stark that " More than ever, the Jews must be sunk right down to the center of the earth."
Ironically without their boogeyman Leonard and Starks start to lose their appeal to the Nazi elite. They could not help with the war effort, and obviously they could not help with fission studies.
In addition by this time Leonard was getting old and the Nazis fundamentally did not respect the elderly and unattractive Lenard, as compared to other scientists like the handsome and youthful Heisenberg. Leonard survived the war and died in 1947 of old age. Whew, good riddance.
Let’s go back a bit to Einstein and his 1905 paper and the photoelectric effect. Actually it wasn’t really just on the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s 1905 paper was on a new view of light where the photoelectric effect was just one example of how this new view of light could explain the experiments.
But what was Einsteins new view of light ? why was it so transformative and radical? That’s next time on the lightning tamers.
二、英文翻译
1、背景介绍
爱因斯坦因光电效应获得 1921 年诺贝尔物理学奖。 但是为什么无论是当时还是现在，爱因斯坦都是以他在相对论方面的工作而闻名。 好吧，这一切都与一个名叫菲利普·莱纳德的人有关，他在光电效应方面的实验启发了爱因斯坦的理论。
▲ 图1.2.1 爱因斯坦的诺贝尔奖
莱纳德是一个很令人追崇的人。 他的工作在开始的时候启发了爱因斯坦，并两人成为了朋友。 然而由于各种阴差阳错的组合，包括对物理学的热爱、科学方面的失望、民族主义和精神上的弱点，他最终成为爱因斯坦最大的克星之一。 这是一个物理学方面的故事，也是关于一个人堕入疯狂和法西斯主义的故事。 这方面往事让我们听 Kathy 老师娓娓道来吧。
▲ 图1.2.2 菲利普·莱纳德
2、无线电波
一位名叫海因里希·赫兹的年轻德国科学家于 1887 年 5 月发现了光电效应。 赫兹利用在感应线圈上安装天线发现了无线电波，可以通过在远处的接收线圈输出端产生的小火花来捕获房间另外一端的大的放电火花。 由于接收线圈中的火花非常小，赫兹决定将其放在暗箱中， 如此这般感应线圈发出的明亮火花就不会分散他的注意力。 令他惊讶的是，当他这样做时，接收器中的火花“明显变小了”。
▲ 图1.2.3 赫兹的光电现象
赫兹开始在他的发射火花和接收火花之间放置各种屏幕， 发现玻璃会减少火花，而石英则不会。 因为玻璃会阻挡紫外线，而石英不会。 赫兹决定，来自紫外线光线的能量一定放大了电火花。 除了那个观察之外，赫兹没有尝试“任何关于观察到的现象背后的理论” 了。 这最终被称为光电效应。 Photo 为光，Electric 为电。
▲ 图1.2.4 光电效应
3、阴极射线
尽管赫兹没有提出任何理论，许多其他人也尝试过， 包括一位 27 岁的德国血统匈牙利研究生 Philipp Lenard， 他正在努力获得大学中的永久职位。 当时在德国，27 岁被认为已经很老了，没有固定的物理学职位。
▲ 图1.3.1 菲利普·莱纳德
好吧，我知道 Lenard 观察到，当光滑的金属板被强烈的紫外线照射时，它们看起来开始变得不那么光滑了。 对此，莱纳德有一个有趣的理论，即电只能由灰尘而不是由气体携带， 正是因为紫外线使得导体带电，从而聚集了灰尘，就使得金属板板材看起来粗糙。 基本上当时所有人都忽略了这个理论，之后在没有进一步发展。
然而三年后，莱纳德的运气发生了变化。 他设法找到了一份工作，担任他心目中的英雄海因里希·赫兹 (Heinrich Hertz) 的助手。
▲ 图1.3.2 阴极射线与X射线
当时赫兹正在研究真空管中产生的阴极射线，或者不可见射线，它可以使磷粉发光。 赫兹发现阴极射线可以穿过薄金属片。 他告诉莱纳德制作一个带有铝制屏障的真空管。 你可能会问赫兹为什么不亲自做这个实验。 这可能是因为赫兹开始头痛得厉害，并且一直感到恶心。
独自留在实验室里，莱纳德不仅研究了在不同真空之间用铝屏障的阴极射线，他还更进一步， 在真空管和空气之间制作了一个铝窗。 令他惊讶的是，阴极射线可以在空气中传播几英寸。
▲ 图1.3.3 铝片带有窗口
4、X射线
莱纳德确信他的 Lenard 真空管最终会使他在科学界名声大噪。 他于 1893 年 12 月发表了他的结果。 不幸的是，几周后赫兹就去世了，伦纳德抽出时间来编辑赫兹作品和传记的德文和英文纪念册。 这段时间的分心对莱纳德来说非常不走运了， 因为就在第二年，另一位名叫威廉·伦琴的德国科学家用很厚磷光屏对 Lenard 管进行实验，并发现了一种新的射线，伦琴称之为 X 射线。 突然间，整个世界都陷入了 X 射线的狂热之中。
▲ 图1.3.4 伦琴的X射线
起初莱纳德对这一发现感到兴奋，并给伦琴写了一封善意的感谢信： “因为你非凡的发现在广泛的圈子里引起了如此显着的关注，我的微薄工作也受到了关注。” 起初莱纳德是正确的，因为他们都开始获得无数奖牌， 包括英格兰的拉姆福德奖牌和意大利的马托奇梅德尔奖牌。
莱纳德终于获得了副教授的职位，并在建立了他的实验室后决定结婚。 正如他所说，“有很多教授的女儿正在等待结婚。”
▲ 图1.3.5 莱纳德和他的妻子凯迪·莱纳德
5、光电现象
很快他就被任命为正教授，他的事业和家庭生活似乎都安稳了。 然而在 1897 年，一位名叫 J.J.Thompson 的英国人证明了阴极射线根本不是一种光， 而是一束带电的粒子，我们现在称为电子的粒子。
随着电子的发现，莱纳德发现他在阴极射线方面的所有工作都变得毫无意义。 更糟糕的是，如果阴极射线是一个粒子，而 X 射线，也就是我们现在认为的超紫外光与阴极射线之间就没有任何关系了， 虽然伦纳德发现阴极射线可以在空气中传播。 也就是说，伦纳德以为伦琴只是在空气中发现了一种新型的阴极射线，但实际上伦琴有新发现，而伦纳德没有。
▲ 图1.3.6 莱纳德的阴极射线与伦琴的X射线
这是一场惨败。 伦纳德重复了 JJ 汤普森的实验，发现射线在各个方面都表现得像带负电荷的移动粒子。 然后莱纳德有了一个巧妙的想法，如果他的旧理论，即电荷只由尘埃携带是正确的话， 那么所谓的尘埃实际上就是阴极射线电子。 1899 年 10 月，莱纳德发表了用紫外光产生阴极射线论文。 他通过石英屏将紫外光照射到真空管中并研究管内的光电射线，从而演示了紫外光产生电子现象。
▲ 图1.3.7 利用紫外线产生电子
对莱纳德来说不幸的是，英国人 J.J.Thompson 几乎在同一时间发表了类似的结果。 所以他觉得他没有因那个发现获得相应的认可。 后来，人们对理解光电效应的突破发生在 1900 年 12 月。 当时一位名叫马克斯·普朗克的德国科学家发表了他的黑体辐射方程。 他假设光子的能量等于常数乘以光频率。 这可以解释为什么紫外线可以具有产生光电效应，而可见光却不能。 由于紫外线具有较高的频率，因此对应的光子能量高。
▲ 图1.3.8 普朗克的黑体辐射方程
然而，莱纳德没有普朗克研究结果与光电效应之间的联系，坦率地说，普朗克也没有看到。 与此同时，在 1901 年，诺贝尔奖决定将诺贝尔物理学将授予伦琴，以表彰他发现了 X 射线，但根本没有提及莱纳德。 莱纳德非常沮丧，到处宣讲他受到了不公平的对待， 决心以其他方式获得别人对他的认可。
Lenard 继续研究紫外线在真空管中产生的粒子。 伦纳德发现，如果他在真空管电极之间反方向施加电压，可以将电子驱回被照射的板。 “就像一块石头被扔上去会落回地面一样。”
▲ 图1.3.9 光电子被反向电压驱动返回
现在他可以通过实验施加足够电压来驱回电子，从而测量电子的最大初始动能，这显然与电子的速度有关。 令他惊讶的是，初始速度与光的强度无关。 换句话说，更强的光会产生更多的电子，但并没有给单个电子更多的能量。 这是怎么一回事呢？
对此，莱纳德有一个有趣但结果是错误的结论。 莱纳德认为，由于电子的速度与光的强度无关，所以能量根本不是来自光。 相反，他认为光会释放分子中固有的能量，就像“引信触发上膛的子弹一样。” 这个触发理论被普遍认为是正确的，甚至直到 1909 年还被写成普遍接受的物理定律之一。
▲ 图1.3.10 莱纳德关于光电效应的说明
6、诺贝尔奖
然后在 1905 年，三件事彻底改变了莱纳德的生活。 首先是莱纳德因其在阴极射线方面的工作而获得诺贝尔物理学奖。 尽管有 14 位顶尖科学家提名 JJ Thomson 发现电子，但只有两位科学家提名 莱纳德。 不过别担心，JJ Thomson 第二年就获得了诺贝尔奖。
▲ 图1.3.11 莱纳德获得诺贝尔奖
在他的获奖感言中，莱纳德坦率地承认了包括许多犹太科学家在内的其他人的工作， 并坦诚的说他并不总能促使想法开花结果。 他说：“我从来都不是采摘果实的人， 但我只是种植或照料树木的人之一。”
第二个事件是 1905 年 6 月，一位专利职员发表了论文，他在论文中提出要研究包括光电效应在内的许多现象。 如果光以小能量包的形式出现，这种光的观点导致光电效应方程与莱纳德的结果相符，但并没有理论上得以证明。
第三件事发生在爱因斯坦创造奇迹的同一年，他发表了一篇关于狭义相对论的论文。 起初，爱因斯坦和他的想法并没有冒犯莱纳德。 事实上，莱纳德或可能是他的助手看到爱因斯坦经常提到莱纳德的工作，并给他寄了一份他最新的论文。 爱因斯坦回信热情洋溢。 四年之后莱纳德才回复爱因斯坦。 但当他这样做时，他对爱因斯坦的赞美溢于言表。
▲ 图1.3.12 莱纳德与爱因斯坦
特别是考虑到莱纳德是获得诺贝尔奖的物理学家，而爱因斯坦当时几乎不为人知。 莱纳德滔滔不绝地说：“当像你这样深刻而全面的思想家对我工作的某些观点表示赞赏时，对我来说没有什么比这更令人兴奋的了。”
7、爱因斯坦交恶莱纳德
大约在 1909 年这个时候，爱因斯坦得知他的一位朋友雅各布·劳德得到了莱纳德的助手职位。 爱因斯坦写道：“我认为与莱纳德共事的机会远非金钱能够衡量。 莱纳德是一位大师和富有创造力的伟大思想家。” 然而，劳德与莱纳德的关系很快恶化，爱因斯坦与莱纳德的关系也同样随之恶化。
莱纳德坚信一种叫做以太的东西，一种看不见的没有质量的物质，即使在真空中也能充满整个宇宙。 这样光就是以太的震动形式。 毕竟当时的人们认为，如果有震动，就需要在某些物质中产生震动。 事实上，莱纳德坚持认为电子实际上只是以太的碎片。 然而到了 1910 年，由于爱因斯坦和相对论，这种神奇的以太失去了人们的支持。 之所以之前人们想到以太，还是因为光速是一个有限数值的原因。
▲ 图1.3.13 光是一种震动的电磁波
劳布向爱因斯坦抱怨莱纳德在无用的实验上浪费时间。 爱因斯坦回信说：“莱纳德最近关于这些奇异的以太演讲在我看来几乎是幼稚的。 他让你对以太进一步研究的理论基础非常荒谬。我很抱歉你必须把时间花在这样的愚蠢上。”
爱因斯坦试图让劳德担任新职位，这引起了莱纳德对两人的愤怒。 莱纳德对待劳德开始恶劣起来。 当爱因斯坦听说这件事时，他写信给劳德：“莱纳德真是一个心态扭曲的家伙，心里充满着阴谋诡计。我认为你最好远离他。” 虽然爱因斯坦这么建议，但劳德还必须与莱纳德共事， 也许只能等待莱纳德老去。
▲ 图1.3.14 莱纳德、爱因斯坦、劳德
然后在 1914 年，一位名叫罗伯特·密立根 (Robert Millikan) 的美国人发表了他关于光电效应的文章。 实际上一开始他是想证明爱因斯坦的理论是错误的，但却震惊地证实了爱因斯坦光电方程的每一个细节。 这样莱纳德关于光电子的触发理论被彻底推翻了。
此外，同年是第一次世界大战的开始，莱纳德是德国的坚定支持者。 事实上，莱纳德签署了致“*文明世界的宣言，其中包括 “没有德国军国主义，德国文明将从地球表面消失” 这样的言论。 爱因斯坦不仅拒绝签署宣言，还与人合写了一份反驳信。 在德国战败后，伦纳德悲痛欲绝。
▲ 图1.3.15 二战结束的新闻报纸
8、反对相对论
更糟糕的是，就在同一年，一位英国天文学家利用太阳日食证明了引力可以使光线弯曲。 换句话说，他通过实验证明了相对论。 爱因斯坦成为世界上最著名的物理学家，大多数科学家都相信相对论。
莱纳德对此不仅嫉妒而且伤心，认定这一切都是因为爱因斯坦是犹太人，是犹太人的大阴谋， 目的是摆脱以太，推动相对论以及量子化光电效应，摧毁德国，抹黑自己。
莱纳德毕生致力于从德国移除犹太科学。 他试图为纯德国人保留所有研究职位。 而且他还利用自己作为前任获奖者在诺贝尔委员会的影响力，试图阻止爱因斯坦加入他们的行列。
1919 年，莱纳德设法让他的朋友兼反犹同僚约翰内斯·斯塔克获得诺贝尔奖，尽管伦纳德是他当年唯一的提名人。 到 1920 年，莱纳德领导着反爱因斯坦和反相对论团体，不断发表演讲、辩论和发表反犹太主义的出版物。
▲ 图1.3.16 约翰内斯·斯塔克获得诺贝尔奖
1921 年的诺贝尔委员会被支持相对论和反对相对论的派别搞糊涂了， 以至于那一年没有给任何人颁发诺贝尔奖。 第二年，一位名叫卡尔·奥森 (Carl Oseen) 的年轻瑞典科学家找到了解决这个问题的方法，并建议爱因斯坦获得前一年的诺贝尔奖。 “特别奖励他发现了光电效应定律。” 至此伦纳德就完全出局了。
▲ 图1.3.17 爱因斯坦获得诺贝尔奖
9、迫害犹太人
到 1924 年，莱纳德已成为一名忠实的法西斯分子。 他和斯塔克在报纸上发表了一篇文章，称“希特勒和他的同志们在我们看来是上帝从种族纯洁的古代时代赐予的礼物”。 到 1930 年代，莱纳德开始出版按种族划分的科学书籍，这些书籍成为纳粹科学的支柱。
1933 年，爱因斯坦逃离德国，再也没有回来。 莱纳德以他如何将爱因斯坦和其他犹太科学家赶出德国而自豪， 并烧毁了所有犹太人的作品，更希望犹太人去死。 他写信给斯塔克说：“比以往任何时候都更为重要的是，这些犹太人恶魔必须坠入地狱。”
▲ 图1.3.18 纳粹焚烧犹太科学家的著作
具有讽刺意味的是，没有被他们赶跑的“恶魔们”的帮助，莱纳德和斯塔克斯开始失去对纳粹精英的吸引力。 他们无法帮助战争，他们无法推动原子核裂变研究。
此外，此时莱纳德已经老了，与英俊年轻的海森堡等其他科学家相比， 纳粹根本不尊年老且没有吸引力的莱纳德。 莱纳德在战争中幸存下来，并于 1947 年去世。 哇，终于摆脱了。
10、后记
让我们稍微回顾一下爱因斯坦和他 1905 年的论文以及光电效应。 其实不光是光电效应。 爱因斯坦 1905 年的论文是关于光的产生与转换的启发式观点，其中光电效应只是这种新观点来解释实验的一个例子。 爱因斯坦的关于光的新观点是什么？ 为什么它如此具有变革性和激进性？ 下一回我们接着说。
▲ 图1.3.19 爱因斯坦关于光的新的观点
■ 相关文献链接:
● 相关图表链接:
- 图1.2.1 爱因斯坦的诺贝尔奖
- 图1.2.2 菲利普·莱纳德
- 图1.2.3 赫兹的光电现象
- 图1.2.4 光电效应
- 图1.3.1 菲利普·莱纳德
- 图1.3.2 阴极射线与X射线
- 图1.3.3 铝片带有窗口
- 图1.3.4 伦琴的X射线
- 图1.3.5 莱纳德和他的妻子凯迪·莱纳德
- 图1.3.6 莱纳德的阴极射线与伦琴的X射线
- 图1.3.7 利用紫外线产生电子
- 图1.3.8 普朗克的黑体辐射方程
- 图1.3.9 光电子被反向电压驱动返回
- 图1.3.10 莱纳德关于光电效应的说明
- 图1.3.11 莱纳德获得诺贝尔奖
- 图1.3.12 莱纳德与爱因斯坦
- 图1.3.13 光是一种震动的电磁波
- 图1.3.14 莱纳德、爱因斯坦、劳德
- 图1.3.15 二战结束的新闻报纸
- 图1.3.16 约翰内斯·斯塔克获得诺贝尔奖
- 图1.3.17 爱因斯坦获得诺贝尔奖
- 图1.3.18 纳粹焚烧犹太科学家的著作
- 图1.3.19 爱因斯坦关于光的新的观点