express relationships between things in a sentence
link different clauses together,
combine sentences.
Without conjunctions, we would be forced to use brief, simple sentences
There are four main types of conjunctions:
coordinating conjunctions,
subordinating conjunctions,
correlative conjunctions,
and conjunctive adverbs.
Coordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, yet, for, so and nor.
We use coordinating conjunctions between:
１．Individual words
• “I like to run and swim.”
２．Phrases
• “The president has been praised for both his willingness to negotiate and his strength in defending his principles.”
• “I am a big fan of playing sports but not watching them.”
３．Independent clauses
• “It was raining, so I took an umbrella.”
Subordinating Conjunctions
connect a subordinate clause to an independent clause
• “Although it was raining, I didn’t take an umbrella.”
• “I went to work in spite of being sick.”
• “I intend to go to South America next month, provided that I can get the time off work.”
Correlative Conjunctions
pairs of conjunctions that work together
to indicate the relationship between two elements in a sentence.
• “Sports are a great way to bring people together, whether you like to play or just watch.”
• “I like neither pepperoni nor anchovies on my pizza.”
Conjunctive Adverbs
join two independent clauses.
These can either be two separate sentences,
or they can be joined into a single complex sentence with a semicolon.
• “The English language school offers discounted English language courses. There’s also a library where you can study and borrow books.”
• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; nevertheless, she recommended it to her friend.”
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two or more words, phrases, or independent clauses.
The two elements being joined must be grammatically equal or similar in both importance and structure.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
－ For
For is used to give a reason for something.
join two independent clauses, introducing the second clause as the reason for the first one.
We can use for whenever we mean because, but it’s considered quite formal, literary, and even antiquated.
－ And
－ Nor
It’s used to present an additional
negative idea when a negative idea has already been stated.
• “He doesn’t like football, nor does he enjoy hockey.”
There is disagreement over whether nor should be used to join two elements that are not
independent clauses．Therefore, the examples below would be considered correct according
to some style guides and incorrect according to others:
• “I haven’t seen nor heard from Mike in days.”
or would be the preferred coordinating conjunction, as in:
• “I haven’t seen or heard from Mike in days.”
－ But
But is used to present a contrast with previous information.
－ Or
Or is used to present alternative choices or options.
－ Yet
Yet, like but, is used to present contrast.
However, there is a subtle implication when we use
yet that the information is surprising in light of what we already know.
• “The movie was depressing yet uplifting at the same time.”
“It’s poured rain all day, yet they haven’t canceled the football game.”
－ So
So is generally only used to join two independent clauses, where the second clause is a
result of the first.
Punctuation
－ Between independent clauses
When a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, a comma normally
precedes it, as in:
• “I’ve never seen that movie, nor do I want to see it.”
the comma is optional if the two clauses are very short and concise
• “He plays sports, and he’s fit.”
or
• “He plays sports and he’s fit.”
－ Between words or phrases
• “James and Jack are coming to the party.”
• “The movie was depressing yet uplifting at the same time.”
－ Before the last item in a list
all of the following sentences could be considered correct:
• “I like apples, bananas, pears, and figs.
• “I like apples, bananas, pears and figs.
• “We have always wanted to buy a boat, sell everything, and set sail.”
• “We have always wanted to buy a boat, sell everything and set sail.”
－ Beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction
Writers often begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction to emphasize an afterthought,
lengthen a pause, or signify a shift in thinking.Commas are not used after coordinating
conjunctions when they start sentences
• “She’s smart and beautiful. And she’s witty, too.”
Correlative Conjunctions
－ both … and
We could also use the coordinating conjunction and, but it doesn’t achieve the
same emphatic effect.
• “This house is large and cozy.”
• “This house is both large and cozy.”
both … and construction doesn’t join independent clauses, only words or phrases.
－ either … or
We use either … or to present two options. Again, it emphasizes the fact that the choice is
limited to only the two given options.
• “Let’s either go swimming or go shopping.”
• “Either your father will pick you up, or you’ll get a ride home with a friend.”
－ just as … so
We use just as … so to indicate that the two elements being joined are similar.
Usually, just as begins an independent clause,
and so is followed by a second independent clause.
Traditionally, the clause after so should be inverted
• “Just as I love films, so does my brother love sports.”
• “Just as French is spoken in France, so is English spoken in England.”
However, it’s also common (especially in informal writing and speech) for this structure to
occur without inversion, as in:
• “Just as I love films, so my brother loves sports.”
－ neither … nor
We use neither … nor to negate two options.
• “I have neither the time nor the patience for silly TV programs.”
(I don’t have time, and I don’t have patience.)
• “Neither James nor Mike enjoys playing basketball.”
“Neither does he understand, nor does he care.”
－ not … but
We use not … but to express a contradiction,
negating the first option while emphasizing the second.
• “He’s not happy but thrilled!”[不是，而是]
－ not only … but also
We use not only … but also to emphasize an additional element in the sentence, especially
when its occurrence seems contradictory or surprising in light of what we already know
• “This house is not only large but also cozy.”
• “She not only cleaned her room, but she also washed the dishes.”
“Not only is she an award-winning singer, but she also runs track.”
Note that when not only is used to introduce an independent clause,
as in the third example,
we must use negative inversion (like with neither … nor).
When but begins the second independent clause,
the subject comes between it and also
－ whether … or
We use whether … or to express doubt between two possible options.
• “I don’t know whether the white paint or the green paint is better.”
We also use whether … or to indicate that something will happen no matter which choice is made.
• “Whether we stay home and eat a pizza, or we go out and watch a film, I’m sure we’ll have a good time.”
• “I’m going to help you whether you like it or not.”
－ Using correlative conjunctions
When we use correlative conjunctions, it’s important to use parallel structure, especially in formal writing.
－ Punctuation
When we use a correlative conjunction to join two independent clauses, we separate the two clauses with a comma
We generally do not use commas when the two elements being joined are not independent clauses
－ Subject-verb agreement
１．Two singular subjects
In general, when we join two singular subjects using a correlative conjunction, the verb that follows should be singular.
One exception to this rule is when using both … and. In this case, we use a plural subject:
２．Two plural subjects
When we join two plural subjects, the verb that follows should also be plural.
３．One singular and one plural subject
Sometimes, we join a singular subject to a plural subject. In this case, the majority of style guides state that the verb should agree with the noun that is closest to it.
• “Every day both the cat and the dogs wake me up.” (Wake is plural because the dogs is plural.)
However, there are also those who believe that if either of the subjects is plural, then the verb should also be plural
－ Pronoun agreement
we also have to be careful with pronoun agreement when using correlative conjunctions
１．Two singular subjects
When we join two singular subjects, we should use a singular pronoun.
Again, both … and presents an exception. We normally use a plural pronoun with this correlative conjunction:
• “Neither Mike nor Daniel found his shoes.”
• “Both Mike and Daniel found their shoes.”
２．Two plural subjects
When we join two plural subjects, we should use a plural pronoun to refer back to them.
• “Neither Mike’s friends nor Daniel’s friends brought their shoes.”
３．One singular subject and one plural subject
the most widely accepted practice is that the
pronoun should agree with whichever noun is closest to it.
the other side of the argument is that if either of the subjects
is plural, the pronoun should be plural
Again, we can avoid the issue entirely by rewriting the sentence so that the plural subject is closest to the pronoun:
Subordinating Conjunctions
The subordinating conjunction does two things:
it introduces and subordinates the dependent clause
(telling the reader that it’s less important than the independent clause),
and it explains what relationship it has to the independent clause.
• “I went to the supermarket since we were out of milk.”
The subordinating conjunction since transforms the second clause from an independent clause into a dependent clause—it subordinates it.
“Since we were out of milk” can no longer stand alone, but is dependent on the independent clause that it’s now connected to.
－ Structure and punctuation
When we use subordinating conjunctions to join two clauses, it doesn’t matter which clause comes first: the subordinating conjunction may appear either at the beginning or in the middle of the new sentence. Therefore, the following two sentences are both correct:
• “I went to the supermarket since we were out of milk.”
• “Since we were out of milk, I went to the supermarket.”
Note that if when we place the subordinate conjunction in the middle of the sentence, as in the first example, we normally don’t need a comma. On the other hand, when we place the subordinating conjunction at the beginning of the sentence, as in the second example, we normally do need to use a comma.
－ Functions of subordinating conjunctions
－ Examples of subordinating conjunctions
１．Cause
We use as, because, and since interchangeably to state the cause of something
２．Comparison and concession
２．１．Similarities
We can use as to state that two ideas are similar. We can also use just as to add extra
emphasis to this statement
• “It’s pouring rain, as I thought it would.”
• “She was late again, just as we expected.”
Note that the examples above flow better with a comma, even though the subordinating
conjunction is not in the initial position
２．２．Expressing contrasts and concessions
• “My brother worked really hard, while I didn’t make much of an effort.”
While and whereas can be used interchangeably, but whereas is often considered more formal. Note also that, like with (just) as above, we use a comma between the clauses even though these subordinating conjunctions are not in the initial position
We use although, though, and even though to say that something occurred in spite of
something else. Though and although are interchangeable, while even though adds extra emphasis.
• “I went to that restaurant though/although I was told it wasn’t very good.”
• “I went to that restaurant even though I was told it wasn’t very good.”
３．Condition
We use the subordinating conjunctions even if, if, as long as, in case, provided that, and
providing when referring to a hypothetical situation
If is the most common conjunction for hypothetical sentences. We use it when one action is required for another to occur.
• “I will buy you a pizza if you help me move my furniture.”
As long as, provided, provided that, and providing all mean the same as if, but they
emphasize the requirement of the conditional action. We can use them interchangeably
• “I will buy you a pizza as long as/provided you help me move my furniture.” (I will only
buy you a pizza if you help me.)
We use even if when an outcome will occur despite a hypothetical action.
“I will buy you a pizza even if you don’t help me move my furniture.” (I will buy the pizza
anyway.)
We use in case to suggest a precaution against a hypothetical possibility.
“I’m bringing an umbrella in case it starts raining.” (I’m worried it might rain, so I’m
bringing an umbrella.)
－ Place
When the dependent clause is related to a place, we use where and wherever, but they are not interchangeable
“He lives where it’s always sunny.”
We use wherever to emphasize that we mean any or every place, rather than a specific
location.
－ Reason
We use in order that, so that, and so to give a reason. They are interchangeable in meaning, but differ in formality
Our boss asked us to take detailed notes in order that nothing would be forgotten
－ Time
１．Previously
To state that the action of the independent clause occurred first, we use before
－ Concurrently
When two actions occur at the same time, there are several subordinating conjunctions we can use, but each has a slightly different meaning. If we are not adding any particular emphasis, we use when:
• “I was sleeping when the phone rang.”
However, to emphasize that two actions occurred (or will occur) at exactly the same time, or in rapid succession, we use once or as soon as:
• “Please clean your room once you get home.”
－ Subsequentl
When the action of the independent clause happens second in a series of actions, we use after:
－ Up to a certain time
To state that one action stops when another one begins, we use until.
“He ran track until he moved here.” (He stopped running track when he moved here.)
－ Any time or every time
Finally, we use whenever to state that the time doesn’t matter, or that two actions always happen together.
“Call me whenever you get home.” (Call me when you get home, but I don’t mind when that is.)
