# Articles
What is an article?
(1) Articles (a, an, the) are determiners or noun markers that function to specify if the noun is general or specific in its reference. Often the article chosen depends on if the writer and the reader understand the reference of the noun.
(2) The articles a and an are indefinite articles. They are used with a singular countable noun when the noun referred to is nonspecific or generic.
(3) The article the is a definite article. It is used to show specific reference and can be used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns.
There are three kinds of nouns: Countable noun, Uncountable noun, and Proper noun.
A/An
A and an are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is nonspecific or generic. \textit{A} is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound, while \textit{an} is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.
Sometimes \textit{a} or \textit{an} can be used for first mention (the first time the noun is mentioned). Then, in subsequent sentences, the article \textit{the} is used instead.
The
The is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns when the noun is specific.
The is used in the following categories of proper nouns: Museums and art galleries, Buildings, Seas and oceans, Rivers, Deserts, Periods and events in history, Bridges, and Parts of a country.
Use the when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of the world.
Use the when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text. This is also known as second or subsequent mention.
The is used with superlative adjectives, which are necessarily unique (the first, the second, the biggest, the smallest, the next, the only, etc.).
No Article
when a plural countable noun or a noncount noun is generic or nonspecific, no article is used.
Count and Noncount Nouns
Count Nouns
Count nouns can be separated into individual units and counted. They usually have both a singular and a plural form. Most English nouns are count nouns. However, the countable nouns only having a plural form in English are clothes, pants, jeans, shorts, and pajamas, which are often used with some sort of quantifier, or quantity word, to show how they are counted.
How are count nouns made plural?
(1) Count nouns are usually made plural by adding an –s or an –es.
(2) If the noun ends in –y, change the –y to –ies to make it plural. However, if a vowel proceeds the –y, add an –s to make it plural.
(3) If the noun ends in –o, add –es to make it plural.
(4) If the noun ends in –f or –fe, change the –f to a –v and add –es.
(5) Some count nouns have irregular plural forms, such as: two feet, two people, two teeth, and two criteria.
Noncount Nouns
Noncount (or uncountable) nouns exist as masses or abstract quantities that cannot be counted.
Here are some common categories of noncount nouns. Like all things in English, there may be exceptions.
(1) A mass: work, equipment, homework, money, transportation, clothing, luggage, jewelry, traffic
(2) A natural substance: air, ice, water, fire, wood, blood, hair, gold, silver
(3) Food: milk, rice, coffee, bread, sugar, meat, water
(4) An abstract concept: advice, happiness, health, education, research, knowledge, information, time
(5) A game: soccer, tennis, basketball, hockey, football, chess, checkers
(6) A disease: diabetes, measles, polio, influenza, malaria, hypothyroidism, arthritis
(7) A subject of study: economics, physics, astronomy, biology, history, statistics
(8) A language: Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, English
(9) An activity (in the –ing form): swimming, dancing, reading, smoking, drinking, studying
Double Nouns
Some nouns can be both count and noncount. When they change from a count to a noncount noun, the meaning changes slightly. In the noncount form, the noun refers to the whole idea or quantity. In the count form, the noun refers to a specific example or type, and it can be used with the indefinite article a/an or it can be made plural. Such as, life, cheese, and language.
Quantity Words
Quantity words are used to add information about the number or amount of the noun. Some quantity words can only be used with countable singular nouns (e.g., computer, pen, and crayon), some can only be used with countable plural nouns (e.g., printers, flashdrives, and keyboards), some can only be used with uncountable nouns (i.e., paper, ink), and some can be used with both plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.
With countable singular nouns: each, every, another. With countable plural nouns: several, a large/small number of, (not/too) many, a few*, (very) few*, and fewer.
With uncountable nouns (e.g., paper or ink): a great deal of, a large/small amount of, (not/too) much, a little*, (very) little*, and less.
With countable plural nouns and with uncountable nouns (e.g., printers, flashdrives, keyboards; paper, or ink): some, any, a lot of, hardly any, (almost) all, no, none of, not any, and other.
Note the difference between few/little (almost none) and a few/a little (some, but not many/much). Few/little tend to have a negative connotation. A few/a little tend to be more positive.
Modifier
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word in the same sentence. A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun), an adverb (a word that modifies a verb), a phrase or clause.
Dangling Modifiers
When a modifier is not modifying a specific word, we call it a dangling modifier.
Example: After consulting a selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.(In this example, it is not clear who is consulting the selection of current publications. In other words, there is no referent in the sentence.)
Revision 1: After consulting a selection of current publications, I determined that the research in this area has been sparse.
Revision 2: According to the selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.
Adjective
A descriptive adjective will usual fit into one of the following categories:
Category Example
Appearance attractive, burly, clean, dusty
Colour azure, blue, cyan, dark
Condition absent, broken, careful, dead
Personality annoying, brave, complex, dizzy
Quantity ample, bountiful, countless, deficient
Sense aromatic, bitter, cold, deafening
Size and Shape angular, broad, circular, deep
Time ancient, brief, concurrent, daily
Order Category Examples
1 Determiner the, my, those
2 Number one, two, ninety-nine
3 Opinion lovely, attractive, rare
4 Size small, medium, large
5 Physical Quality thin, lumpy, cluttered
6 Shape round, square, triangular
7 Age young, middle-aged, old
8 Colour red, white, blue
9 Origin British, German, Russian
10 Material wood, metal, plastic
11 Type L-shaped, two-sided, all-purpose
12 Purpose cooking, supporting, tendering
13 Attributive Noun service, improvement, head
Demonstrative Adjectives
A demonstrative adjective is a special adjective (often called a determiner) that identifies a noun or pronoun by expressing its position as near or far (including in time), which are ‘this,’ ‘that,’ ‘these,’ and ‘those.’
Indefinite Adjective
An indefinite adjective is an adjective used to describe a noun in a non-specific sense. The most common indefinite adjectives are any, each, few, many, much, most, several, and some. Note: Indefinite adjective are classified as “quantifiers” (a type of determiner) in contemporary grammar.
Interrogative Adjective
An interrogative adjective (also known as interrogative determiners) is a word that modifies a noun by asking a question, which are “what,” “which,” and “whose.”
Example: What car will they give us?
The difference between the interrogative adjectives “what” and “which” is subtle. Use “what” when the options are unknown. Use “which” when the options are known.
Example: (1) What car will they give us? (2) Which car will they give us?
The difference between the interrogative adjective and interrogative pronoun is that, if the interrogative adjective (aka determiner) modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the interrogative pronoun can not. Example: (1) Which is the greater? (2) Which risk is the greater?
The difference between the interrogative adjectives with interrogative adverbs is as following. The interrogative adverbs are “why,” “where,” “when,” and “how.”, and are also used to ask questions, but the answer to these questions will be an adverb. The answer to an interrogative adjective is always a noun.
Example: (1) What food would you like? (Cake) (2) When do you have to leave? (At four o’clock)
Interrogative adjectives modify nouns and are used in interrogative sentences (i.e., questions). The interrogative adjectives can also appear in indirect questions, such as: She told us which one was most likely.
Possessive Adjective
A possessive adjective sits before a noun (or a pronoun) to show who or what owns it, and they are my, your, his, her, its, our, their, and whose.
Predicate Adjective
A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies (i.e., describes) the subject of the linking verb. Example: Everything is funny.
Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that modifies a noun or a pronoun. In an adjective phrase, the head adjective can be at the start, the middle or the end of the phrase.
Example: (1) I am \textit{sad about the result}; (2) I am \textit{awfully sad about the result}; (3) I am \textit{very sad}.
The other words inside the adjective phrase are known as the dependents of the head adjective, which are typically adverbs (“awfully” and “very”) or prepositional phrases, such as the “awfully” and “about the result” in the aboving second sentence.
The adjective phase can be classified into two cagetories: “attributive adjective” and predicative adjective.
(1) Attributive Adjective
An attributive adjective sits inside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.
Example: The \textit{beautifully carved} frames are priceless.
(2) Predicative Adjective
A predicative adjective sits outside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.
Typically, a predicative adjective is linked its noun with a linking verb (e.g., “to be,” “to look,” “to smell,” “to taste”).
Example: The frames are \textit{beautifully carved} and priceless.
adjective acting as the post-modifier
ostpositive adjectives are most common with pronouns.
Such as, someone interesting, those present, something evil.
(1) when it modifies the indefinite pronoun, such as somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, nothing, it must be put behind the indefinite pronoun. Example: This isn’t anything important.
(2) when the adjective phrase act as the modifier, it must can put behind its modified noun. Example: (a) I think he is a man suitable for the job; (b) We need a place twice larger than this one.
(3) Sometimes, when a pair of adjectives act as the modifier, one adjective can be put behind the modifier noun considering the rhythm and balance. Example: There was a huge cupboard, simple and beautiful.
(4) when the predicate adjective act as the modifier, it must be put behind its modified noun. Example: (a) He must be the best violinist alive; (b) The house ablaze is next door to me.
(5) Some adjectives, such as past, last, next, nearby, following, acts the modifier, it can be put before or behind the noun. Example: (a) in past years / in years past; (b) the following days / the days following.
(6) When some adjectives, such enough, opposite modify the noun, it can be put before or behind the noun. Example: The people in the house opposite [the opposite house] never draw their curtains.
(7) some adjectives, such as present, can acts pre-modifier or post-modifier, but its meaning is different. Example: (a) What’s your present feeling? (present=现在的); (b) He was the only Englishman present. (present=在场的)
Adverb
An adverb is one or many words used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Example: (1) She swims extremely quickly; (2) He ran \textit{at 10 miles per hour}; (3) He ran \textit{when the police arrived}; (4) He ran \textit{to the shops}; (5)He ran \textit{every day}; (6) He ran \textit{quicker than me}.
When an adverb modifies a verb, it can often be categorized as one of the following: Adverb of Manner, Adverb of Time, Adverb of Place, and Adverb of Degree.
Adverbial Clause
When an adverb consists of more than one word, it is known as an adverbial phrase, e.g., He ran like the wind. If this phrase contains its own subject and verb, it’s called an adverbial clause, e.g., He ran like his life depended on it.
Adverbial phrases and clauses can usually be categorised as one of the following:
(1) Adverbs of Time
(2) Adverbs of Place
(3) Adverbs of Manner
That dog is walking around like he owns the place.
(4) Adverbs of Degree
(5) Adverbs of Condition, example, I will come with you provided my suit is back from the dry cleaners.
(6) Adverbs of Concession
(7) Adverbs of Reason
The properties of an adverbial clause:
(1) An adverbial clause is an adjunct, which means it can be removed without the sentence being grammatically wrong.
(2) An adverbial clause is a dependent clause, which means it cannot stand alone as meaningful sentence in its own right.
(3) An adverbial clause usually starts with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., “although,” “because,” “if,” “until,” “when”)
(4) An adverbial clause will contain a subject and a verb, which makes it a clause as opposed to a phrase.
Preposition
Preposition Basics
A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Some examples of prepositions are words like in, at, on, of, and to.
Prepositions in English are highly idiomatic. Although there are some rules for usage, much preposition usage is dictated by fixed expressions. In these cases, it is best to memorize the phrase instead of the individual preposition.
A Few Rules
Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions to, (in)to, and on(to). Example: Drive on(to) the grass and park the car there.
Prepositions of Time
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions in, at, and on.
To refer to extended time, use the prepositions since, for, by, during, from…to, from…until, and (with)in.
Prepositions of Place
To refer to a place, use the prepositions in (the point itself), at (the general vicinity), on (the surface), and inside (something contained).
To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions over and above. To refer to an object lower than a point, use the prepositions below, beneath, under, and underneath.
To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions by, near, next to, between, among, and opposite.
Prepositions of Location
To refer to a location, use the prepositions in (an area or volume), at (a point), and on (a surface).
Prepositions of Spatial Relationships
To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions above, across, against, ahead of, along, among, around, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, from, in front of, inside, near, off, out of, through, toward, under, and within.
Prepositions Following Verbs and Adjectives
Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition. Sometimes verbs and adjectives can be followed by different prepositions, giving the phrase different meanings. To find which preposition(s) follow(s) the verb or an adjective, look the verb or adjective up in an online dictionary, such as Merriam Webster, or use a corpus, such as The Corpus of Contemporary American English. Memorizing these phrases instead of just the preposition alone is the most helpful.
Some Common Verb + Preposition Combinations
About: worry, complain, read
At: arrive (a building or event), smile, look
From: differ, suffer
For: account, allow, search
In: occur, result, succeed
Of: approve, consist, smell
On: concentrate, depend, insist
To: belong, contribute, lead, refer
With: (dis)agree, argue, deal
Ending a Sentence With a Preposition
In academic writing, you may decide that it is worth revising your sentences to avoid ending with a preposition in order to maintain a more formal scholarly voice.
Example: My research will focus on the community the students lived in.
Revision: My research will focus on the community in which the students lived.
Example: I like the people I am working with.
Revision: I like the people with whom I am working.
Conjunctions
Basics of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical purpose in a sentence. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the acronym FANBOYS: \textit{for}, \textit{and}, \textit{nor}, \textit{but}, \textit{or}, \textit{yet}, and \textit{so}.
Notation: (1) \textit{For} is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English; (2) When the conjunctions \textit{and} and \textit{or} connect three or more words or phrases, use a serial comma to separate items in the series.
Transitional words such as \textit{however} and \textit{therefore} can also function as conjunctions.
Paired Conjunctions
Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives, such as \textit{both…and}, \textit{not only…but also}, \textit{either…or}, and \textit{neither…nor}.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes a relationship between the two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common: \textit{after}, \textit{although}, \textit{as much as}, \textit{as soon as}, \textit{as long as}, \textit{as though}, \textit{because}, \textit{before}, \textit{how}, \textit{if}, \textit{in order to}, \textit{in order that}, \textit{once}, \textit{since}, \textit{than}, \textit{\textit{that}, \textit{though}, \textit{unless}, \textit{until}, \textit{when}, \textit{whenever}, \textit{where}, \textit{wherever}, \textit{whether}, and \textit{while}.
There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction: (1) Main clause + subordinate clause; (2) Subordinate clause + , + main clause.
that as a Conjunction for Noun Clauses
One important use of \textit{that} is for embedding (inserting) a certain type of dependent clause called a noun clause into an independent clause. Frequently, such \textit{that}-clauses serve as the direct object of a reporting verb (such as found, reported, posited, argued, claimed, maintained, and hypothesized) to introduce a paraphrase, summary, or quotation.
For example:
The authors hypothesized that there would be significant results.
In formal written English, for clarity, most academic writers choose to keep \textit{that} when it introduces a noun clause. Leaving out \textit{that} can cause the reader to misread (at first anyway) the subject of the dependent clause as being the object of the reporting verb.
Sentense
sentense type
There are four types of sentenses: Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex.
\testbf{Simple sentence}
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause. Example, She completed her literature review.
\testbf{Compound Sentences}
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
\testbf{Complex Sentences}
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.
Example:
(1) Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
(2) Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
\testbf{Compound-Complex Sentences}
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: The rain was falling, and the weather was cold, thought it was supposed to be spring.
Clause
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. A clause functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, which can be denoted as the noun clause, the adjective clause, and the adverbial clause, respectively.
There are two types of clause: An independent clause is the one that can stand alone as a sentence; A dependent clause is the one that is usually a supporting part of a sentence.
adverb clause
Adverb clause (also called adverbial or subordinate clauses) is one dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction, and it provide information about the when, where, why, and how of the independent clause.
Relative Clauses
An relative clause (also called an adjectival or adjective clause) will meet three requirements: (1) it will contain a subject and verb, bringing the links between it and its modified noun; (2) it will begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why), which makes it become a clause; (3) it will tell us something about the noun, which makes it become a kind of adjective.
The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns:
Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb
Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb
Punctuate an adjective clause correctly.
A relative clause connects ideas by using pronouns that relate to something previously mentioned and allows the writer to combine two independent clauses into one sentence. There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.
Relative Pronouns
Referring to a human Referring to something other than a human Possessive
Restrictive who, whom, that* which, that** whose
Nonrestrictive (with commas) who, whom which whose
Restrictive Clause and Nonrestrictive Clause
A restrictive clause (also known as an essential clause or phrase) provides necessary information about the noun or noun phrase in the sentence, which is not reparated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Restrictive clauses are more common in writing than nonrestrictive clauses.
The relative pronoun acting as the object of the sentence in the relative clause can be omitted.
Example: He carpets (which) you bought last year have gone moldy.
A nonrestrictive clause (also known as a nonessential clause or phrase) uses commas to show that the information is additional to a sentence.
If the information between the commas is omitted, readers will still understand the overall meaning of the sentence.
Example: The hypothesis, which I tested throughout the research, was rejected
Noun Clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun, acting as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects of a preposition. Noun clauses begin with words such as \textit{how}, \textit{that}, \textit{what}, \textit{whatever}, \textit{when}, \textit{where}, \textit{whether}, \textit{which}, \textit{whichever}, \textit{who}, \textit{whoever}, \textit{whom}, \textit{whomever}, and \textit{why}.
-ing Clauses (GERUNDS)
If the \textit{-ing} clause is first, we write a comma (,) between the clauses, such as: Feeling tired, I went go to bed early. If the \textit{-ing} clause is at the end of the sentence, the comma isn’t needed. There are three usage conditions: simultaneous events, consecutive events, and explain something. These clauses are used more in written English than in spoken English.
When \textit{-ing} clause is used for the simultaneous events, We must use \textit{-ing} for the longer action, Example: Jim hurt his arm playing tennis (= while he was playing tennis). In this case, we can also use \textit{-ing} after \textit{while} or \textit{when}. Example: Jim hurt his arm (\textbf{while}) playing tennis.
When \textit{-ing} clause is used for the consecutive events, we use HAVING + Past Participle for the fist action, such as: Having found a job, Brian celebrated with his wife to be. we can also use \textit{after verb+ING}, such as: After finishing her dinner, she had a shower.
When we use an \textit{-ing} clause to explain something or to say why somebody does something, the \textit{-ing} clause usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. Example: (1) Not having a car, she finds it difficult to get around (= because she doesn’t have a car); (2) The TA600, a China-developed amphibious aircraft, passed a hydrodynamic test on Friday, marking a step forward toward its maiden flight.
Parallel Construction
Parallel ideas must be presented in parallel grammatical form, which means that each part of a sentence uses the same grammatical structure. Examples of Parallel Construction: \textit{between…and…}, \textit{both…and…}, \textit{either…or…}, \textit{neither…nor…}, and \textit{not only…but also…}
Parallel Construction in a Series： sentences with series, or lists, require particular attention to parallel construction. Example: This paper will address No Child Left Behind benchmarks, effective teaching strategies, and multimedia instructional aids.
Most Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing
According to corpus research, in academic writing, the three tenses used the most often are the simple present, the simple past, and the present perfect. The next most common tense is the future; some major assessments, course assignments, and the doctoral study proposal at Walden are written in this tense for a study that will be conducted in the future.
\textbf{Simple present:} Use the simple present to describe a general truth or a habitual action. This tense indicates that the statement is generally true in the past, present, and future. Example: The hospital admits patients whether or not they have proof of insurance.
\textbf{Simple past:} Use the simple past tense to describe a completed action that took place at a specific point in the past (e.g., last year, 1 hour ago, last Sunday). In the example below, the specific point of time in the past is 1998. Example: Zimbardo (1998) researched many aspects of social psychology.
\textbf{Present perfect:} Use the present perfect to indicate an action that occurred at a nonspecific time in the past. This action has relevance in the present. The present perfect is also sometimes used to introduce background information in a paragraph. After the first sentence, the tense shifts to the simple past. Example: Many researchers have studied how small business owners can be successful beyond the initial few years in business. They found common themes among the small business owners.
\textbf{Future:} Use the future to describe an action that will take place at a particular point in the future (at Walden, this is used especially when writing a proposal for a doctoral capstone study). Example: I will conduct semistructured interviews.
APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense
APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage (see APA 3.06). In other words, avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to help ensure smooth expression.
(1) Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented) or the present perfect (e.g., researchers have presented) for the literature review and the description of the procedure if discussing past events. (2) Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test scores improved significantly). (3) Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results and present conclusions (e.g., the results of the study show…).
Per APA 3.18, refer to the work of another researcher in the past. Example: Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…
However, there can be a shift to the present tense if the research findings still hold true. Example: King (2010) found that revising a document three times improves the final grade.
Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the Document Itself
To preview what is coming in the document or to explain what is happening at that moment in the document, use the present or future tense. Example: (1) In the next chapter, I will discuss…; (2) In the next chapter, I discuss…
To refer back to information already covered, such as summaries of discussions that have already taken place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the past tense. Example: In summary, in this section, I presented information on…
Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect
Rules for the use of the present perfect differ slightly in British and American English. Researchers have also found that among American English writers, sometimes individual preferences dictate whether the simple past or the present perfect is used.
Keep in mind, however, that the simple past is used for a completed action. It often is used with signal words such as yesterday, last week, 1 year ago, or in 2015 to indicate the specific time in the past when the action took place. Example: He completed the employee performance reviews last month.
The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred without focusing on the specific time it happened. Note that: For the present perfect, the action has occurred, and the specific time is not given; The present perfect focuses more on the result of the action and the simple past; The present perfect is often used with signal words such as since, already, just, until now, (not) yet, so far, ever, lately, or recently. Example: He has completed the employee performance reviews.
–ing form
(1) The \textit{–ing} form is used in progressive verb tenses with auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). These are in active voice. Example: I was writing when the pizza arrived.
(2) The \textit{–ing} form can function as a noun. These nouns are called gerunds and can be the subject of a clause, followed by a third-person singular (he/she/it) form of the verb. Example: Hiking is one of my favorite activities.
(3) The -ing noun (or gerund) can be the direct object of certain verbs. Some verbs that are followed by a gerund are the following: Admit, Avoid, Consider, Deny, Discuss, Practice, Recall, and Suggest. Example: He often avoids answering his phone.
(4) The -ing form is used after a preposition. Example: Her experience in interviewing will be beneficial.
(5) Adjectives are sometimes formed using \textit{–ing}. Example: I read an interesting book.
(6) The \textit{–ing} form is sometimes used to include additional information in a sentence in a reduced relative clause. Example: The pens sitting on the desk belong to the teacher.
Past Participles
Here are four common uses of past participles:
(1) The past participle is used with have auxiliaries (helping verbs) in active voice. Example: She had completed her degree before being hired.
(2) The past participle is used after be auxiliaries in passive voice. Example: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(3) The past participle is sometimes used in a phrase to supply additional information. These participial phrases come from relative clauses with a passive meaning. Example: (a) The ideas presented at the conference are important to remember. (b) Taken by surprise, Alice hugged her long lost friend.
(4) The past participle is sometimes used as an adjective. Example: The received goods were damaged in shipping.
-ing or Past Participle?
Sometimes both the -ing and the past participle (-ed) forms can function as adjectives. However, each form has a different meaning. Notice that the –ing adjective refers to a thing and the past participle (-ed) adjective refers to a person. Example: The rules are confusing; I am confused.
Parenthesis
A parenthesis, sometimes called an “interrupter”, is a word, phrase, or clause inserted into a sentence as an explanation or afterthought. A parenthesis is usually offset with parentheses (i.e., round brackets), commas, or dashes. These are called parenthetical punctuation marks. When a parenthesis is removed, the surrounding text is still grammatically sound. In a sentence, parenthesis mainly plays the role of explanation, explanation and summary, etc. In addition, it can also be used to express the speaker’s attitude and views, to emphasize, to attract the attention of others, to change the topic, to connect the preceding and the following.
(1) Parenthesis denoted as by adverb
such as: certainly, surely, indeed, however, fortunately, luckily, probably, personally.
For example: (a) Certainly, pets can help children develop friendship skills; (b) Yes, indeed, I intend to go.
(2) Parentesis denoted by the prepositional phrase
Such as: in fact，in one’s opinion, of course，above all /first of all, by the way.
For example: (a) In fact, those people have been promoted; (2) The only honest answer is, of course, yes.
(3) Parentesis denoted by infinitive
Such as: to be frank, to tell(you )the truth, to be sure.
For example: To be frank, I don’t like him.
(4) Parentesis denoted by V-ing (gerund)
Such as: generally speaking, generally considering, strictly speaking, judging from/by
Such as: Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job.
(5) Parentesis denoted by the clause
Such as: I think, I hope, I’m afraid, What’s more, What’s worse, You see.
For example: (a) You can win the game, I think. (b) Well, you see, you shouldn’t really feel that way about it.
(6) Parenthesis donoted by the adjective or adjective phrase
Such as: sure enough, worse still, true, funny, strange to say, needless to say, most important of all.
For example: (a) Sure enough, he came out with all the news we wanted. (b) True，it would be too bad. © Wonderful，we have won again. (d) All this, needless to say, had been culled second-hand from radio reports.
(7) Parenthesis denoted by the Past participle
Painted white, we like the house better.
注意：之所以称它为插入语，是由于这种过去分词是独立的，没有逻辑主语。
(8) Parenthesis introduced with the round brackets or dashes
Such as: (a) He was (strange as it seems) an excellent sportsman; (b) He was -to me at least, if not to you- a figure that was worth having pity on.
Subject–Verb Agreement Rules
Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
(1) If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
(2) If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
(3) When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
(4) When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with the subject.
(5) When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.
(6) When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
(7) When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.
(8) The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
(9) Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
(10) Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
(11) In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
(12) Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are group, team, committee, family, and class. However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is much less common.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to receive the action. Example:The speaker discussed different marketing strategies in the video.
A transitive verb can take more than one object, which have two forms: an indirect object may come between a transitive verb and the direct object, or the indirect object could be in the form of a prepositional phrase. An indirect object is only needed if the action is being done to or for somebody; when using a transitive verb, you need to include a direct object, but you may not need to include an indirect object.
Intransitive Verbs
An intransitive verb does not take an object. However, there may be other information after the verb, such as one or more prepositional phrases or an adverb. Example: Each student must find his or her own note-taking strategy.
English Subjunctive
虚拟语气的十大句型
一、虚拟条件句:
条件状语从句是非真实情况，在这种情况下要用虚拟语气。
1．条件从句与现在事实不一致，其句型为：
句型1：If ＋主语＋过去时，主语＋ should (could, would, 或might) ＋动词原形
(1) If I were you, I would study hard.
(2) If it rained, I would not be here now.
2．条件从句与过去事实不一致，其句型为：
句型2：If ＋主语＋had＋过去分词，主语＋ should（could, would, 或might）＋ have ＋过去分词
(3) If the doctor had come last night, the boy would have been saved.
(4) If I had not studied hard, I would have failed in the exam last term.
3．条件从句与将来事实不一致，其句型为：
句型3：If ＋主语＋过去时/ should ＋动词原形/ were to＋动词原形，主语＋ should (could, would, 或might) ＋动词原形
(5) If it should rain tomorrow, we would stay at home.
(6) If I were to go to the moon one day, I could see it with my own eyes.
(7) If you missed the film tonight, you would feel sorry.
注意问题：
1．If条件句中绝对不可以出现would。
2．根据句中的时间状语，有时可能出现“混合虚拟”的情况，即主句可能是现在的情况，条件句也许是发生在过去的情况，但都要遵守上述句型。如：
(8) If you had studied hard before, you would be a college student now and you would graduate from a college in four years’ time.
3．条件句中如果出现were, had, should可省去if，将主语与这些词倒装。例如：
(9) Had the doctor come last night, the boy would have been saved.
(10) Were I to go to the moon one day, I would see it with my own eyes.
(11) Should it rain tomorrow, we would stay at home.
二、名词性虚拟语气：
在表示命令(inist等)、建议(suggest等)、要求(demand等)、惊叹(surprise等)时的名词性从句中需用虚拟语气，基本句型：
句型4：主语＋（should）＋动词原形
(12) Mother insisted that John (should) go to bed at 9 o’clock.（宾语从句）
(13) It was required that the crops (should) be harvested at once.（主语从句）
(14) It is surprising that she shouldn’t pass the math exam. （主语从句）
(15) The suggestion that he (should) be invited was rejected.（同位语从句）
(16) Their demand is that their wages (should) be increased.（表语从句）
注意：在这种句子中绝不可以出现would,must, could等。
三、虚拟语气在一些特殊词中的使用或含蓄条件句：
句型5：wish后的宾语从句
与现在愿望不一致：主语＋过去时；
与过去愿望不一致：主语＋ had ＋过去分词/ could ＋ have＋过去分词；
与未来愿望不一致：主语＋ would / could ＋动词原形。如；
(17) I wish I were you.
(18) I wish I had visited the White House when I was in the States.
(19) I wish I could meet you tomorrow at the party.
句型6：It’s time句型（当It’s time后用that从句时应该为“主语＋ should ＋动词原形”或“主语＋过去时”）
(20) It’s time that you went / should go to school.
句型7：If only引起的感叹句相当于“How I wish ＋宾语从句”
(21) If only he could come! 他要能来就好了。
(22) If only I had known the answer! 我要早知答案就好了。
句型8：would rather, as if（though）引导的句子也需使用虚拟，表示过去的情况用过去完成时，表示现在与将来的情况
用过去时。
(23) I’d rather you posted the letter right away.
(24) I’d rather you had returned the book yesterday.
(25) She loves the children as if they were hers.
(26) Alan talked about Rome as if he had been there.
句型9：without, but, but for, but that, otherwise引起的短语或句子常暗含着虚拟条件。
(27) Without you, I would never know him.
(28) But for your cooperation, we wouldn’t have done the work so well.
(29) But that she was afraid, she would have said no.
(30) I would be most glad to help you, but I’ am busy now.
(31) I should have come to the party yesterday, but I was busy.
(32) I am busy now; otherwise I would do you the favor!
句型10：If it were not for … / If it hadn’t been for … (要不是因为……)，其后面的主句也需使用虚拟。
(33) If it were not for his help, I wouldn’t go home now.
(34) If it hadn’t been for the determined captain, all the passengers on the board wouldn’t have been saved.