1. Cytology
Protoplasm: refers to the living matter in cells, which is the material system of life.
Cytoplasm: The protoplasm inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus.
Organelle: A subcellular structure within a cell that has a specific function and structure.
Cytoskeleton : The skeleton structure in the cell, composed of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, is used to maintain the order of the cell morphology and internal structure. Passive absorption: The process in which ions move from the outside of the membrane to the inside of the membrane due to the concentration difference and potential difference between the inside and outside of the membrane.
Active absorption: Under the premise of providing energy, the process of ion inverse chemical potential and concentration difference moving from the outside of the membrane to the inside of the membrane.
Pinocytosis: The process in which small vesicles surrounded by plasma membrane invaginations shed and dissociate in the cytoplasm.
Heredity: The information transmission process in which the basic characteristic information of organisms is passed from parents to offspring.
Cell cycle: The whole process of a cell from the end of division to the end of the next division.
Apoptosis: the autonomous and orderly death of cells controlled by genes in order to maintain a stable internal environment.
Cell totipotency: Every cell in an organism has the same set of genetic material, contains all the genes necessary to develop into a complete individual or differentiate into other cells, and has the potential for differentiation.
Stem cells: A class of cells that proliferate slowly but maintain self-proliferation, giving rise to another limited, rapidly dividing population of metastatic cells.
2. Botany
Flowering: The pollen grains in the stamens and the embryo sac in the pistils mature, and the calyx and corolla open to reveal the stamens and pistils.
Pollination: The pollen in the pollen sac is released and transmitted to the stigma of the same flower or another flower with the help of a certain medium force.
Double fertilization: After the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac, the end of the pollen tube ruptures, releasing two sperm, one of which combines with the egg cell to form a fertilized egg, which later develops into an embryo, and the other combines with the polar nucleus in the center of the embryo sac to form a fertilized egg The polar nucleus, which later develops into the endosperm.
True fruit: The fruit that develops from the ovary wall.
False fruit: In addition to the ovary wall, other parts of the flower also participate in the development of the fruit.
Simple fruit: a fruit formed by a single pistil.
Aggregate Fruit: A fruit formed from multiple pistils in a single flower. (strawberry)
Juhuaguo: Fruit formed by inflorescences, also known as compound fruit . (pineapples, figs)
Fleshed fruit: A fruit whose skin becomes fleshy when ripe.
Dried fruit: Fruit with dry skin and no juice after ripening.
Seed lifespan: The longest period a seed can remain viable under certain conditions.
Seed dormancy: After the seeds are mature, they still cannot germinate under suitable conditions, and must pass a relatively static period before they can germinate.
Life history: the process of seeds from vegetative growth, reproductive growth to the formation of a new generation of seeds.
Vegetative reproduction : The reproduction method in which a part of the plant vegetative body leaves the mother body and directly forms a new individual.
Essential elements for plants: Nutrient elements necessary for normal physiological activities of plants.
Antagonism between ions: The effect that the presence of one ion in solution inhibits the absorption of another ion.
Coordination between ions: the presence of one ion in solution promotes the absorption of another ion.
Reusable element: A mineral element that enters a plant organ and can be transported to other tissues or organs.
Non-recyclable elements: Elements that cannot be retransported after entering the plant organs.
Biological nitrogen fixation: Rhizobium bacteria convert free nitrogen in the atmosphere into ammonia, providing nitrogenous compounds for plants while providing their own needs.
Root Nodule: A symbiont produced within a root by the entry of Rhizobium bacteria.
Mycorrhizae: A symbiotic association of roots and fungi.
Phytohormone: a trace organic substance that is synthesized in plants, can be transported from the site of production to the site of action, and has a significant physiological effect on its growth and development.
Plant Growth Regulator: A synthetic substance with phytohormone activity.
Hormone receptor: A substance that can specifically bind to plant hormones and produce specific hormone physiological and biochemical effects after binding.
Plant movement: Plant organs can move in a certain space under external stimuli.
Geotropism: The phenomenon that plants grow in a certain direction under the action of gravity.
Phototropism: The phenomenon that plants grow toward the light under unilateral light irradiation.
Directional movement: The directional growth movement produced by plants under the unidirectional stimulation of external factors.
Sensitive movement: Plants are stimulated by external factors to produce growth movement independent of the direction of the stimulus.
Photoperiod: A plant's response to the length of day and night.
Phytochrome: A pigment that is sensitive to light in plants.
Biological clock: The internal control mechanism of the physiological activities of plants that changes periodically with the alternation of day and night formed during the long-term evolution process.
Alternation of Generations: During the life history of a plant, generations of sporophytes that produce spores alternate regularly with generations of gametophytes that produce gametes.
Zygotic Meiosis: During sexual reproduction, meiosis occurs as soon as the zygote germinates.
Gamete Meiosis: Meiosis occurs during the production of gametes.
Intermediary Meiosis: Meiosis occurs when spores are produced.
Equal generation alternation (homotype alternation of generations): gametophytes and sporophytes have the same appearance, size, structure and significance, and there is no difference. They can live independently, but the number of chromosomes is different.
Lichen: A symbiont of fungi with cyanobacteria or green algae.
Photosynthesis: The process in which green plants and photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to synthesize carbon dioxide and water into organic matter and release oxygen.
Primary reaction: The process in which chlorophyll molecules are excited by light to cause primary photochemical reactions.
CAM pathway: Crassulaceae plants fix carbon dioxide into organic acids at night, and decarboxylate organic acids to release carbon dioxide for photosynthesis during the day, such a photosynthetic pathway that synthesizes diurnal changes with organic acids.
3. Biological evolution
Gene Pool: The sum of all individual genes in a population.
Allele frequency (gene frequency): The frequency of different alleles at a locus in a population.
Genetic structure: the frequency of various alleles in a population, and their quantitative distribution among various genotypes
Hardy-Weinberg law (law of population balance): After a random mating of an ideal population, the genotype frequency and gene frequency remain constant in generations, and the population is in a state of genetic balance.
Genetic drift: The random increase or decrease in gene frequency in a small population.
Gene flow: The phenomenon of different degrees of gene flow between different populations of the same species due to incomplete isolation.
Selection Pressure: Between two relative traits, one is selected for an advantage in survival.
Stability selection: select the middle type and eliminate the extreme types at both ends.
Directional selection: Selection of extreme types on one side of a group.
Splitting selection: keep the extreme types at both ends and eliminate the intermediate types.
Convergent evolution:
Divergent evolution:
Adaptive Radiation:
Neutral mutation:
Ecological niche: the function, role, and position of a species in an ecosystem
Isolation mechanism: the reason why two or more closely related taxa are not easy to mate or the offspring are sterile after mating.
Gender segregation: Segregation of different groups of male and female individuals due to weak or lack of attraction between them.
Morphological isolation: Isolation caused by different genital or flower shapes between different groups.
Geographical segregation: Segregation due to differences in geographical environment.
Ecological isolation: Isolation due to differences in required food, environment, or other ecological conditions.
Reproductive isolation: Isolation between different species due to biological characteristics such as inability to interbreed or hybrid sterility.
Large mutations: Some mutations in regulatory genes that control the size of body parts, differences in brain development, and frontal shape of limbs.
Fossils: Biological remains, relics and living relics preserved in the stratum through natural processes.
Standard Fossils: Fossils of animals and plants that can determine the age of strata.
Relic organisms: In the earlier period of history, they were very developed and widely distributed, but in the newer period or era, they declined greatly, only survived in individual areas, and had a tendency to become extinct.
Living fossils: Animals and plants that have occurred in geological history and are still alive today.
Petrification: The process of turning biological remains, relics, and living remains into hard stones through physical or chemical actions. Including carbonization, mineralization, silicification and calcification.
Molecular Clock: Amino acids are replaced at the same rate per unit time.
mass extinction:
Development: The changing development of an individual.
Ontogeny: The occurrence and development of an organism from pregnancy to adulthood.
Evolution (phylogeny): The changing development of the living world.
Common ancestral similarity: Some features come from a common ancestor, and the similarity of this feature is called common ancestral similarity.
Ancestry: A trait derived from a common ancestor.
Co-derived similarity: Two species whose features are derived from their most recent common ancestor or sister group have features that first appeared in their most recent common ancestor. The similarity of such features is called co-derived similarity.
Dimorphism: A trait derived from a most recent common ancestor or a sister group in which two species share a trait that first appeared in their most recent common ancestor.
Unique morphology: A morphology that occurs only in one species or taxon.
Outgroup: Species other than the taxonomic object but related to the taxonomic object.
4. Physiology
Tissue: A population of cells composed of one or more types of cells.
Organ: Different tissues perform one or several specific physiological functions together, and together form a functional unit with a specific shape and structure.
System: Some organs that are functionally related are united together to perform the functions necessary for life through division of labor and cooperation. It is a higher-level structural unit than organs.
Target Organs: Organs where hormones act.
Steady state of the internal environment: various physical and chemical factors in the environment of the body remain relatively stable.
Negative Feedback: An increase in the output of a system is transmitted to a sensitive element, causing the output of the system to decrease.
Positive Feedback: Information about an increase in the output of a system is sent to a sensitive element, causing the output of the system to increase.
Nutrition: Provides the energy needed for life activities and the organic matter that builds up living organisms.
Nutrients: Substances in food that can be digested and absorbed by the human body.
Metabolic rate: the total energy required by a human body or an animal per unit time.
Basal metabolic rate: the minimum energy required per unit time for a person to maintain the necessary life activities in a resting state.
Essential Amino Acids: Amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be ingested from the outside world.
Digestion: The process of turning ingested food into simple small molecules through mechanical pulverization and chemical decomposition.
Absorption: The process by which simple small molecules cross the cell membrane and enter the cell.
Extracellular Digestion: The process in which food is broken down and digested in the digestive tract.
Blood circulation: Blood circulates and flows in the cardiovascular system throughout the body.
Plasma crystal osmotic pressure: The osmotic pressure formed by the crystalline substances in the plasma, which is in balance with the tissue crystal osmotic pressure, maintains the water balance inside and outside the cell and the morphology and function of blood cells.
Plasma colloid osmotic pressure: The osmotic pressure formed by the macromolecular protein in plasma maintains the water balance inside and outside the blood vessel.
Blood volume: the sum of blood cells and plasma.
Blood type: The type of specific antigen on the red blood cell membrane.
Heart: A hollow muscular organ composed of endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium.
Veins: Blood vessels that carry blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
Blood pressure: The pressure of the blood in the blood vessel on the wall of the unit blood vessel, generally refers to the arterial blood pressure.
Cardiac cycle:
diastolic pressure:
Systolic blood pressure:
Atherosclerosis: Deposition of cholesterol-containing fat in the intima of arteries, forming atherosclerotic plaques.
Respiration: The process of gas exchange between the body and the outside world.
Tidal volume: The volume of air that is exhaled and inhaled each time while breathing quietly.
Vital capacity (total breathing volume): The volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation and exhalation as best as possible.
Asphyxiation: Oxygen supply is obstructed, and the respiration of cells in tissues is obstructed.
Osmoregulation: Regulation of water and salt levels in the body.
Humor regulation: Hormone-like chemicals are transported through body fluids to specific target organs to produce effects.
Action potential:
Resting potential: The potential difference between the two sides of the cell membrane when the cell is not stimulated.
Polarization: At resting potential, the two sides of the membrane maintain a state of positive outside and negative inside.
Depolarization: the process by which the resting potential decreases or even disappears
Reverse polarization: The process in which the potential in the membrane changes from zero to positive.
Repolarization: the process of returning to polarization from a reverse polarization vertex
Hyperpolarization: the process of increasing the resting potential
Neuronal bioelectricity: The electrical potential of a living cell or tissue.
Impulse: Rapid, transducible bioelectrical changes produced by tissue stimulation.
Nerve Impulse: An action potential generated by a nerve cell in response to a stimulus.
Conduction: The process by which excitement spreads across the same cell or tissue.
Local current: caused by the potential difference between the excited part and the unexcited part
Jump conduction: local currents are formed in the excited and unexcited Ranvier junctions, and action potentials are generated at the Ranvier junctions.
Synapse: The point of contact between the axon terminal of one neuron and another neuron.
Chemical Transmission: Signaling occurs through the release of chemicals from nerve endings.
Reflex: The body's regular response to stimuli with the participation of the central nervous system.
Flexor reflex: When noxious stimulation is given to the skin of spinal animals, flexion of the limbs on the stimulated side can be observed.
EEG: Spontaneous rhythmic electrical potential changes in the cortex recorded on the scalp
Isotonic contraction: The length of the muscle changes during contraction, but the muscle tension remains the same.
Isometric contraction: A contraction in which the tension of the muscle changes without changing the length of the muscle.
Sensation: Receptors transform the stimuli acting on the body into nerve impulses, pass through certain conduction pathways, and reach the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex through the central level at all levels, and through the processing of cortical neurons, make them enter the field of consciousness and transform them into corresponding subjective consciousness .
Suitable Stimuli: Stimuli in the form of energy with the highest sensitivity.
Unsuitable stimuli: Other stimuli in the form of energy that do not respond or have very low sensitivity.
Receptors: structures and devices that are distributed on the body surface or inside tissues to sense changes in the internal and external environment of the body.
Receptor organ: a highly differentiated sensory cell connected with nerve endings constitutes an organ with complex sensory functions.
Physical receptors: receptors for touch, gravity, tension, motion, light, sound, heat, etc.
Chemoreceptors: Receptors that sense changes in substances in the body.
Sensory adaptation: A process in which a person's receptors are first stimulated to get a clear feeling, and when the stimulus continues, the feeling gradually weakens or even disappears.
5. Ecology
Ecological factors: Environmental elements in the environment that have an indirect or direct impact on the growth, development, reproduction, behavior, and distribution of organisms.
Environmental factors: All environmental elements external to an organism.
Limiting factor: An element that approaches or exceeds an organism's tolerance and limits its survival, growth, reproduction, or spread.
Habitat: The environment in which an organism lives.
Ecological range: the range of the upper limit and lower limit that various organisms can tolerate to ecological factors, which reflects the adaptability of organisms to environmental factors.
Thermocycling: Plants adapt to diurnal changes in temperature
Bergmann's Law: High-latitude endothermic animals are larger than low-latitude endothermic animals
Allen's Law: Animals living in cold regions tend to shorten their limbs, ears, nose, and tail
Population: A collection of individuals of the same species occupying a certain time and space.
Birth rate: the number of births per 100 individuals per unit time in a population
Mortality rate: the number of deaths per 100 individuals per unit time in the population
Population size : the size of the number of individuals in the population.
Population density: The number of individuals per unit area or volume.
Population distribution type: The spatial distribution type of the population within a defined range.
Exponential growth model: The growth process of the population without the limitation of environmental resources.
Logistic growth model: the population growth process under certain environmental resource conditions.
Ecological countermeasures: In the long evolutionary process, natural selection produces different choices on the evolutionary strategies of species, which is the overall adaptation strategy of species to the ecological environment.
Community: A regular combination of biological populations in a specific space or in a specific habitat.
Plant community: In a certain area, plant populations are regularly combined.
Vegetation: The flora of an area.
The appearance of the community: the overall external form formed by the background of the dominant species and the subsidiary species as a foil.
Stratification: Different biological species appear at different heights above the ground and at different depths below the ground, making the entire community vertically up and down
Latitude zonality: regular replacement in bands along the latitude direction.
Longitudinal zonality: From the coast to the inland, there is a regular replacement of belts.
Vertical zonality: As altitude increases, there is a regular replacement of climate, soil, flora and fauna.
Horizontal zonality: a collective term for dimension zonality and fine longitude zonality.
Succession: The process by which one community is replaced by another on a certain site.
Climax community: The final, relatively stable state reached by succession.
Primary succession: A succession that begins on native bare soil.
Primary Bare Land: A bare site completely devoid of vegetation or any plant propagules.
Secondary succession: A succession that begins on secondary bare soil.
Secondary bare ground: Bare ground where vegetation is absent but plant propagules remain in the soil or substrate.
Producer: An autotrophic organism that produces its own organic matter.
Consumer: An organism that feeds directly or indirectly on plants.
Decomposer: Organisms that decompose organic matter into inorganic matter for reuse by producers.
Ecosystem: In a certain space, biological components and non-biological components form an ecological functional unit through the interaction and interdependence of material circulation and energy flow.
Food chain: The food transfer between organisms at different nutritional levels forms a chain relationship structure.
Trophic level: Each link in the food chain is called the trophic level, which refers to the sum of all organisms in the same link in the food chain.
Food Web: The trophic relationships in an ecosystem are organized into a network.
Biomass: The total organic matter in an ecosystem.
Primary production: Organic matter produced by producers such as photosynthetic bacteria and plants.
Secondary production: organic matter produced by consumers.
Energy pyramid: Due to the gradual loss of energy through the food chain, the energy in the food chain presents a pyramid shape with a wide bottom and a narrow bottom from bottom to top.
Biogeochemical cycle: Many substances related to life activities, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water, circulate in nature in various forms.
Greenhouse Effect: A phenomenon in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents the ground from radiating heat to space, causing the atmosphere to heat up.
Ecological balance: within a certain period of time, the types and quantities of organisms are relatively constant, and the energy flow, material circulation, and information exchange between them and between them and the environment remain stable, reaching a unified and coordinated state.
6. Zoology
Reversal: Contrary to the proembryocoel formation in other multicellular animals, the extremely small cells of animals are invaginated to form the endoderm, and the extremely large cells of plants form the ectoderm at the periphery.
Lateral animals: Sponges have collared cells, which are reversed during embryonic development, and are considered to be a branch in the evolution of animals, so they are called lateral animals.
Open tube circulation system:
Closed tube circulatory system:
Segmentation with the same rhythm: the body segments are basically the same except the head, and some internal organs are arranged repeatedly according to the body segment.
Irregular segmentation: Different body segments heal to a certain extent to form body regions with different shapes such as the head, chest, and abdomen, and complete different physiological functions.
Arthropods: Animals with segmented bodies and appendages.
Metamorphosis: Changes in external morphology and internal structure from the larval stage after hatching to the adult.
Gradual metamorphosis: The characteristics of the larvae and adults are not much different, except that the sexual organs are immature and the wings have not grown.
Semi-metamorphosis: The larvae and adults have great differences in shape and living habits.
Deuterostomes: Animals in which the gastrula foramen forms the adult anus during early development, and the adult mouth forms at the other end of the gastrula foramen.
Chordates: All animals that have a notochord, or that have degenerated in the course of evolution and are replaced by vertebrae.
Gill Fissures: A series of paired slits on either side of the anterior portion of the digestive canal.