The world today faces a serious water crisis. The lack of water resources has become a major issue related to poverty, sustainable development and even world peace and security. In the past two years, the United Nations has repeatedly emphasized that water resources in large cities are the focus of the world's water resources issues, and management is the core of urban water resources issues. Judging from the management models of urban water resources in foreign countries, there are various forms, especially the unified management of the river basin as a unit. From the point of view of management system, urban water management has its own department, equal emphasis on water quality and quantity is the development trend, and integrated management of urban water affairs is the trend of international water management.
1. The status quo of foreign urban water affairs management
1. management system
Currently, there are two water administration models being widely discussed and recommended by various international organizations: one is the water market model, and the other is the water negotiation model. These two models are respectively based on the successful experience of the western United States and France. The American water market model is based on individual property rights, while the French model emphasizes joint negotiation.
The development and management of water resources in the United States is carried out in accordance with the laws and regulations enacted by Congress. The development, utilization and management of water resources are under the responsibility of three levels of federal government agencies, state government agencies and local agencies. Local water management agencies are actually some economic entities that operate in accordance with the laws of market economy and have no direct affiliation with government agencies. In terms of political system, the United States implements private ownership, so the federal government's water management mainly focuses on the management of water rights. As for the management of water supply and distribution, it is mainly through the spontaneous regulation of the market and the operation of non-governmental organizations. As private property, water rights can be freely transferred in the United States, and the transfer procedure is similar to the transfer of real estate. In recent years, a Water2Water company has emerged in the water trading market in the United States, aiming to establish a transparent and fair water market center, where buyers and sellers can conduct various types of water transactions, making water, the most precious Commodities are most efficiently allocated. It is a flexible and "free-form" marketplace that caters to buyers and sellers of all sizes. In addition, the water rights trading system of Water Bank (Water Bank) also appeared in the west. The annual water inflow is divided into several parts according to the water rights, and the water rights are managed in the form of a joint-stock system, which facilitates the water rights trading procedures and makes the water resources more efficient. The economic value can be more fully reflected.
France has a high degree of industrialization and urbanization, so its water management mainly refers to urban water management. In France, the Ministry of the Environment is the main government department responsible for water and environmental management. Since France has many levels of water management (divided into four levels: national level, river basin level, regional level, and local level) and involves many related departments (the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Industry), coordinated management is extremely important. Streamlining administration and decentralization is a characteristic of France's coordinated management of water resources. At the national level, a water resources committee is established, whose chairman is a member of the parliament, and whose members are representatives of the Senate, the House of Representatives, and important state-related institutions. The Water Resources Committee is responsible for the development of the national water policy, the drafting of water-related laws and regulations, and the coordination of the approval of regulations, drainage authorization and water quality management. At the basin level, the basin committee is responsible for proposing the overall plan for the development and management of water resources in the basin, determining the five-year plan, and recommending water fee collection rates and investment allocations. The local government is responsible for the development and management of water resources at the level of tributaries or small watersheds. According to laws and regulations, under the framework of the overall plan for the development and management of water resources in the basin, the water resources development and management plan for tributaries or small watersheds is proposed, and domestic water supply and sewage treatment, Raise funds, decide investment and project management methods and water prices, participate in project operation if necessary, select project implementation units through bidding, and determine project service scope, etc. In France's water management activities, the organizational form of the "three-three system" is reflected in water management agencies at all levels. Members of the National Water Resources Committee, Basin Committee, and Basin Water Affairs Bureau include representatives of relevant government departments, water users, and professional associations, which fully embodies the democratic consultation system and has truly established an effective supervision and management mechanism. It has become a relatively respected institution in the world today. way of doing.
2. Investment Policy and Investment Recovery Mechanism
The development of urban water affairs in developed countries such as Europe and the United States is based on a market economy, and urban industrial and domestic water supply projects generally require full recovery of investment. The investment recovery of water supply projects is generally reflected in the depreciation of fixed assets, management costs and reasonable income in the composition of water prices. The recovery of investment in sewage treatment projects is generally reflected in sewage treatment fees or taxes.
The water supply and sewage treatment projects in the United States are developed completely according to the needs of the market, and the project investment adopts a scientific investment allocation method. Water prices are set for new water conservancy projects, and the project investment is apportioned among various beneficiary departments. The water supply project investment in the water conservancy project investment is generally borne by water users, and the water supply project investment is recovered by collecting water fees. The British government has basically made it clear that it will no longer invest in new water projects, and that the new water resources development funds will be raised by the water companies. Therefore, developers must consider whether they can repay the investment before launching new water projects. There are two major sources of financing for water supply investment in France and ways of recovery: water fee and water tax. Water fee is the main factor. When making a decision to invest in a water supply project, the first consideration is how to recover investment costs and interest. The company and the user (representative) negotiated to propose a reasonable and feasible water price plan, signed the contract together, and started construction only after the user could bear the water price standard. In the past, the investment in urban water supply infrastructure in Australia mainly relied on government funding. In recent years, reforms have been carried out in accordance with the principle of "whoever invests, who owns, who manages, who benefits, and who can transfer", which has attracted private sector investment and reduced government funding. Funding has also promoted the reform of project construction methods and saved a lot of project investment.
3. Water Price Formation Mechanism
Developed countries such as Europe and the United States generally follow the following principles when determining the price and charging system of aquatic products: (1) the principle of cost compensation, (2) the principle of reasonable profits, (3) the principle of reflecting market changes and adjusting prices in a timely manner, (4) (5) The principle of improving resource allocation efficiency. For the adjustment of water price, countries usually have to take into account the level of inflation and social affordability to carry out macro-guidance intervention. Under the condition of ensuring that the water price is basically stable for a certain period of time (generally 1 to 2 years, and the longest is no more than 5 years), the government will The agency or both the supplier and the user entrust the agency or the water supply unit to adjust the water price in a timely manner.
The French water price policy is formulated under the national macro guidance, adopts a cautious and democratic dialogue method and a water price hearing system, and negotiates with water users through various river basin committees to determine the standards for water fees and pollution taxes. The executive agency - Water Management Bureau is responsible for charging users. The formulation of water price in the UK is completely operated according to the input-output model under market economy conditions to ensure cost recovery and moderate surplus. The state sets a price ceiling for macro-control. The water price formation mechanisms adopted by the United States include: service cost pricing, affordability pricing, opportunity cost pricing, incremental cost pricing, and market demand pricing, etc., and the service cost method is generally used. The water price in the United States is generally priced according to a single project, and each project sets its own water price. Australian urban water supply has introduced a water price system of "paying according to the water user", that is, the water price is composed of a fixed fee that has nothing to do with water consumption and a variable fee based on water consumption. The water price is not only related to the cost of water supply, but also related to the water level of users. The Canadian federal government is only responsible for the areas under its direct jurisdiction and directly formulates the water price standards in these areas. In addition, the water prices are mainly responsible for the provinces and local governments, and the federal government only plays a macro-guidance role. Japan's household water charges generally account for 0.6% to 1.0% of household consumption expenditures. Thailand, Singapore, and Indonesia stipulate that household water and water charges should be within 3% of the average household income.
4. The role of the water regulatory system
A sound water legal system is an important guarantee for the effective management of urban water resources in developed countries. Although the United States does not have a national unified water law, its legal system is relatively complete. It has a water rights system or water management system that is compatible with the market economic system. Detailed regulations. Its water resources management is based on the state's own legislation and interstate agreements as the basic management rules. The contradictions in the development and utilization of interstate water resources are coordinated by relevant federal government agencies (such as the Bureau of Reclamation, Army Corps of Engineers, and river basin management agencies). Then resort to the law and resolve it through judicial procedures. Both France and Japan have national water laws, and they attach great importance to regulating various water affairs and water resource management through legal means.
5. water environment protection
Developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and the Netherlands, after experiencing the pain of water pollution, have no choice but to attach importance to water resource protection. They have established water environmental protection agencies or raised their levels to strengthen the organization and leadership of this work. Different countries have different forms of management. One is the model in which water quality monitoring and supervision are implemented by different departments in the United States, the former Soviet Union and other countries. The second is managed by a department, which is managed by the water conservancy system or the environmental protection system. For example, the British Environmental Protection Agency is in charge of the end, without a Ministry of Water Resources, water management directly enters the market, and the government is only macro-control. In the Netherlands, the water department is responsible. The French Water Authority conducts unified management of quality and quantity, including collecting water fees, sewage charges, water resource development, and water supply. The French management style is more common among countries today. The third is that large rivers across provinces and regions are managed in a unified manner for water quality and quantity based on the basin as a unit. Almost all major rivers in all countries adopt this model, and France and the Netherlands are the most typical examples. It is a successful experience. France has 6 water affairs bureaus divided into large river basins, and the Netherlands has set up water boards based on river basins, which are empowered by the Water Law and manage water quantity and quality according to law.
2. Analysis of foreign urban water management experience
1. Controlling water according to law is the prerequisite for the coordinated development of urban water affairs
The water management systems of developed countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and Australia are not consistent, but one thing in common is that water management is orderly, that is, water laws and regulations are relatively sound, and all sectors of society can strictly abide by them. Act according to law. Differences in the degree of legalization of urban water management in various countries and the integrity of the charging management system determine the differences in the implementation procedures of water prices in various countries. However, most countries can collect water fees according to the law, and violations will be punished. In terms of water management system, the management responsibilities are clear and the powers are clearly divided. The United States, France and other countries clearly separate the responsibilities of government agencies, public institutions, and business units involved in water affairs activities, and each fully plays its role within the scope of authority conferred by the law. If there is any ultra vires or illegal behavior, it will be corrected and punished through legal means.
2. Government-private partnership is a better model for urban water management
Regardless of China and foreign countries, the traditional water management model is: the government and state-owned enterprises invest in the construction of water facilities and are responsible for their operation, but it is accompanied by lack of competition and low efficiency leading to losses. Most of the current water supply systems in cities are still managed by the government, and the results are mostly unsatisfactory. The new models include privatization (such as the United States and Australia) and franchising. Where water facilities cannot be privatized, the ownership remains unchanged and the management rights are handed over to private companies (such as France). In this way, competition can be introduced and efficiency can be improved.
3. It is controlled by the government and acts according to the laws of market economy, which is in line with the characteristics of water resources
Although European and American countries are market economies, according to the characteristics of water resources, the management of water supply agencies and water price policies are still under the effective control of the government. The governments of the United States and Canada stipulate that water supply agencies can neither make profits nor allow them to lose money. Therefore, the principle of non-profitability is the principle in setting water prices, but it is necessary to ensure that investment recovery, operation and maintenance management and renovation expenses are borne by themselves. When formulating the water price, drainage fees, sewage treatment fees, and value-added tax levied by the state are also included in the calculation. When the water price is too high and it is difficult for users to bear it, the state will subsidize part of it in turn to play a regulatory role. In addition to being responsible for the approval and reporting of basin water planning, the French Basin Water Bureau is also the main financing institution for comprehensive river basin management, accepting part of the taxes paid by local provinces and regions on behalf of the country, and then investing in new water projects as needed. Good development and utilization of water resources in the basin to serve the society.
In addition, the current urban water management in developed countries attaches great importance to input and output, and operates in accordance with the laws of market economy. The water supply organization determines the price of water supply before constructing the water supply project, and signs a contract with the water users, and the contract binds each other, and the government will no longer intervene. For example, Britain and France regard the development and operation of water resources as an industry, and the water investment system adapts to the laws of the market economy. Water conservancy infrastructure can borrow from the government or raise funds from the society, and pay interest and repay government loans by water fees or electricity sales. The water fee standard fluctuates with the inflation index of the market economy, and varies from region to city and from year to year. Each water company has independent accounting, is responsible for its own profits and losses, and develops itself.
4. Unified management of water quality and quantity is an effective form of urban water affairs management
Countries with relatively good urban water management, such as France, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands, all have one thing in common, that is, the water quantity and water quality of water resources have truly achieved integrated management. Britain and France promulgated a series of laws and systems requiring equal emphasis on water quantity and quality. Water intake must be licensed in advance, and sewage must be treated to meet the water quality standards stipulated by law before being discharged into rivers or lakes. The most prominent point is that the development, utilization and protection of urban water resources are all in charge of one department.
5. Vigorously developing water saving is an important part of urban water affairs management
Saving water is the common direction of all countries in the world to solve the problem of urban water use. Even in some countries with abundant water resources, due to the unbearable burden of sewage treatment, water conservation has been vigorously promoted in recent years. In 1998, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency promulgated the "Water Conservation Planning Guide" for urban public water use, which proposed different minimum water conservation measures and plans for public water supply systems of different scales, and formulated a series of water conservation measures for water supply companies. Requirements, such as providing complete sets of water-saving appliances for users to modify and replace, installing water meters generally, controlling pipe network pressure, keeping accounts for water supply, providing information and education to users, conducting water audits, assisting large users to analyze the cost and effectiveness of water use, and improving Water efficiency for green irrigation, formulating water standards and regulations for dry seasons or emergencies, etc.
The rainfall in the UK is sufficient, and the water resources can basically meet the needs of residents, industry and agriculture. However, considering that the demand for water has maintained a steady growth in the past 20 years, the government has paid great attention to improving water use efficiency and reducing water pollution in recent years, and proposed that the protection of water resources is not only the responsibility of government agencies and enterprises, and to strengthen public attention to this issue Also very important. To this end, the government will also stipulate the obligations of water use units in the effective use of water resources, and through measures such as adjusting the application fee for water abstraction permits, encouraging the transfer of permits, helping to provide water-saving technologies and programs, and reviewing the development plans of water supply companies, to encourage households , enterprises, etc. to improve water efficiency.
6. Water environment protection is an important task of urban sustainable development
Developed countries attach great importance to the protection of water resources, and the protection of urban water environment in accordance with the law and the realization of sustainable development are common features. In France, all cities and towns with a population of more than 2,000 have built a sewage treatment plant, and the urban sewage treatment has reached more than 95%. In order to further control water source pollution, the French government has required all cities and towns to establish a sewage treatment system that meets EU standards before 2005. For areas where sewage treatment cannot meet the standards, the government will continue to levy water source management fees to promote these. The region will reach the standard as soon as possible, so that the national water source pollution problem will finally be completely solved. The main method of controlling water pollution in the United States is to strictly limit the development of polluting enterprises, pay attention to reasonable industrial layout, absolutely prohibit the establishment of polluting industries in water source protection areas, and vigorously develop sewage treatment plants. In the coastal city of San Francisco, due to the early construction of the sewage collection system and sewage treatment plant, the treatment capacity is relatively small, so a sewage storage system was built in the sewer, and the sewage was stored in the culvert when the treatment plant had no time to process it. To avoid direct discharge into the bay to pollute the marine environment. In order to ensure the quality of water supply, the cities of San Francisco and Denver purchased tap water catchment areas by means of national purchases, and adopted strict protection measures for water supply sources.
Developed countries attach great importance to the protection of water resources, and the protection of urban water environment in accordance with the law and the realization of sustainable development are common features. In France, all cities and towns with a population of more than 2,000 have built a sewage treatment plant, and the urban sewage treatment has reached more than 95%. In order to further control water source pollution, the French government has required all cities and towns to establish a sewage treatment system that meets EU standards before 2005. For areas where sewage treatment cannot meet the standards, the government will continue to levy water source management fees to promote these. The region will reach the standard as soon as possible, so that the national water source pollution problem will finally be completely solved. The main method of controlling water pollution in the United States is to strictly limit the development of polluting enterprises, pay attention to reasonable industrial layout, absolutely prohibit the establishment of polluting industries in water source protection areas, and vigorously develop sewage treatment plants. In the coastal city of San Francisco, due to the early construction of the sewage collection system and sewage treatment plant, the treatment capacity is relatively small, so a sewage storage system was built in the sewer, and the sewage was stored in the culvert when the treatment plant had no time to process it. To avoid direct discharge into the bay to pollute the marine environment. In order to ensure the quality of water supply, the cities of San Francisco and Denver purchased tap water catchment areas by means of national purchases, and adopted strict protection measures for water supply sources.