Detailed resistance

First, the basic concept

Resistance: is inherent in a material, some extent hindered by the current, and the electrical energy consumed into heat one physical property.

Resistors: an electronic component from the resistance in the circuit performance.

Resistance: a measure certain physical properties of the size of the resistor body material.

Resistance unit: Ohm.

Other commonly used are: too Europe (T [omega]), gio (GΩ), megohm (milliohms), kilohms (kco), milliohms (milliohms), Naou (omega]) Pio (pΩ) identification, which is converted formula is as follows:  

1TΩ=1000 GΩ; 1GΩ=1000 MΩ;1MΩ=1000;1KΩ=1000Ω;1Ω=1000mΩ;1 mΩ=1000nΩ; 1nΩ=1000pΩ;

Abbreviation resistors: R, exclusion (RN)

 

Second, the resistance classification

2.1 by resistance characteristics of
2.1.1 fixed resistor:

Can not be adjusted, we call the fixed-value resistor or a fixed resistor.

2.1.2 adjustable resistor:

Adjustable resistance, which we call an adjustable resistance. Common adjustable resistor is a slide rheostat, for example the radio volume adjusting means is a circular rheostat, the voltage applied to the main distribution, we call potentiometer.

2.2. Press manufacturing materials
2.2.1 thin film resistor

  By evaporation of a certain resistivity of the material deposited on the surface of the insulating material it is made. Notably the following:

a carbon film resistors

Carbon film resistor (carbon film resistor) is a resistor of the earliest and most widely used, by vacuum coating techniques sprayed ceramic rods above the carbon film, the carbon film and then cut into a spiral pattern the outer shape processing, in accordance with a spiral pattern to set the amount of the resistance value, the long spiral pattern indicates a larger resistance value. Finally, the protective outer layer formed by applying epoxy seal. Although the resistance error resistance higher than a metal film, but because of the low price. Carbon Film Resistors is still widely used in a variety of products, is the electronics, electrical appliances, equipment, information products of the most basic components.

                         

 

 b metal film resistors.

Metal film resistors (resistance metal photographing) using the same vacuum deposition technique sprayed ceramic rods above, except that the carbon membrane into a metal film (e.g., nickel-chromium), and a metal film made different resistance car spiral pattern, and in porcelain noble metal of the rod ends. Although it is more expensive than carbon film resistors, but low noise, stable, little affected by temperature impact, high accuracy become its advantage. It is widely used in advanced aspects of audio equipment, computers, instruments, defense and space equipment.

                        

 c metal oxide film resistors

Some instruments or devices require long-term operation in a high temperature environment, using a general resistance will fail to maintain its stability. In this case, using a metal oxide film resistors (metal oxide thin film resistors), which is using high-temperature combustion technology in the above high thermal conductivity ceramic rods sticking a metal oxide film (a compound made of tin and tin spray solution, spray into 500 ~ 500 ℃ thermostatic oven, coated on the ceramic base body formed by rotation. materials may be zinc oxide, etc.), and make different resistance of the metal oxide thin film coil pattern board, and then in the outer layer of non-flammable spray paint. And its performance is similar to metal film resistors, but a narrow range of resistance values. It is possible to retain their stability at high temperatures, which is typically characterized by a metal oxide film and the ceramic substrate bonded more firmly, the power load is higher resistive film. Acid ability, resistance to salt spray, making it suitable for operation in harsh environments. It also combines low noise, stable, good benefits high frequency characteristics.

                        

 

 

 Synthesis film resistors d

The suspension was applied to an electrically conductive composition on a substrate is obtained, it is also called the film resistance. Due to its conductive layer exhibits a granular structure, so the noise, low accuracy, he mainly used for producing a high-pressure, high impedance, a small resistor.

                         

2.2.2 winding resistance

On the insulating housing is made of high-resistance alloy wire wound outside the heat-resistant enamel coated insulating layer or insulating paint. Winding resistance having a low temperature coefficient, high resistance accuracy, good stability, heat and corrosion resistant, mainly to use precision power resistors, the disadvantage is the difference between high-frequency performance, the time constant is large.

                        

 

 

Wirewound resistor square

Square Wirewound resistor (wire wound resistors) and electrical group known as cement, nickel, chromium, and iron alloy resistance wire wound resistance larger on the non-basic heat-resistant ceramic member, together with the outside heat, humidity, no the material from corrosion protection, then was placed in ceramic frame winding resistance, incombustibility sealed with a special heat-resistant cement placement. Difference not only flammable coating layer coating the wire wound resistor replaced by silicone resin or nonflammable coatings. Their advantage is the resistance accurate, low noise, good heat dissipation and can withstand very large power consumption, a power amplifier is often used in part of the stage. The disadvantage is little resistance, high cost, also because the presence of the inductance not be used in high frequency circuits.

                        

 

 

2.2.3 no sense of resistance

No sense of resistance to commonly used to do load, power for absorbing unwanted products generated during use, or cushion, of the braking action, such resistance often referred JEPSUN Czech resistor or load resistance than the channel.

                              

 

 

2.2.4 Solid carbon resistor

用碳质颗粒壮导电物质、填料和粘合剂混合制成一个实体的电阻器。 并在制造时植入导线。电阻值的大小是根据碳粉的比例及碳棒的粗细长短而定。 特点:价格低廉,但其阻值误差、噪声电压都大,稳定性差,目前较少用。

                              

 

2.2.5金属玻璃铀电阻

将金属粉和玻璃铀粉混合,采用丝网印刷法印在基板上。耐潮湿,高温,温度系数小,主要应用于厚膜电路。贴片电阻(片式电阻)是金属玻璃铀电阻的一种形式,它的电阻体是高可靠的钌系列玻璃铀材料经过高温烧结而成,特点是体积小,精度高,稳定性和高频性能好,适用于高精密电子产品的基板中。而贴片排阻则是将多个相同阻值的贴片电阻制作成一颗贴片电阻,目的是可有效地限制元件数量,减少制造成本和缩小电路板的面积。 这种贴片电阻主要分为厚膜与薄膜。贴片厚膜电阻:厚膜电阻电路一般采用丝网印刷工艺,膜厚一般大于10μm。厚膜电阻一般精度较差10%,5%,1%是常见精度,同时厚膜电阻的温度系数上很难控制。贴片薄膜电阻:采用真空蒸发、磁控溅射的方法将一定电阻率材料蒸镀于绝缘材料表面制成一种电阻器,膜厚一般小于10μm。由于材料和工艺上的差别,薄膜电阻的精度较高可以做到0.1%,0.05%,0.25%,0.5%等精度。温度系数也比较好。
                            

2.3按敏感特性
2.3.1、热敏电阻:

是一种对温度反应比较敏感,阻值会随温度的变化的非线性电阻器,通常由单晶、多晶等半导体材料制成。在电路中用RT表示。

A正温度系数热敏电阻:也称PTC,属于直热式热敏电阻。正温度系数热敏电阻在常温下阻值很小,当流经它的电流超过额定值时,其阻值随温度的升高而增大。

B 负温度系数热敏电阻:也称NTC热敏电阻。其主要特性是电阻值与温度变化成反比。

2.3.2、压敏电阻:

压敏电阻器简称VSR,是一种对电压敏感的非线性过电压保护半导体元件,在电路中用RV表示。普通电阻遵守欧姆定律,而压敏电阻的电压与电流则呈现特殊的非线性关系。当压敏电阻器两端所加电压低于标称电压时,其阻值呈现无穷大,内部几乎无电流流过。当压敏电阻器两端所加电压高于标称电压时,压敏电阻器迅速击穿导通,由高阻状态变为低阻状态,工作电流急剧增大。当两端电压又低于标称值时,压敏电阻器又恢复高阻状态。当两端所加电压超过局限值时,压敏电阻将完全击穿损坏,无法自行恢复。压敏电阻应用在过压保护、防雷击、尖峰吸收回路、限幅、等电路。

2.3.3、光敏电阻:

光敏电阻是一种对光敏感的元件,它的阻值随外界光照强弱变化而变化。在无光照时呈高阻状态,有光照时阻值减小。光敏电阻在电路中“RL或RG”表示。他一般应用在自动照明、自动报警等电路中。

2.3.4、湿敏电阻:

湿敏电阻是一种对环境湿度敏感的元件,它的阻值随环境湿度变化而变化。它分正湿度特性电阻(湿度增大电阻值增大)和负湿度特性电阻(湿度增大电阻值减小)。在电路中他用"RS"表示。常用 与湿度检测器中做传感器。

2.3.5、磁敏电阻

磁敏电阻是一种对磁场敏感的半导体元件,他可以将磁感应信号转换成电信号。他的阻值随磁场的变化而变化。

2.3.6、气敏电阻:

气敏电阻是一种对特殊气体敏感的原价爱你,他可以将被测气体的浓度和成分信号转变相应的电信号。广泛应用在可燃气体、有害气体的检测中。

2.3.7、力敏电阻

力敏电阻是一种能将机械力转变为电信号的特殊元件。其电阻随外加力大小而改变。主要用在压力传感器上。

 

三、电阻器的标示法

3.1、直标法:

用数字和单位符号在电阻器表面标出阻值,其允许误差直接用百分数表示,若电阻上未注偏差,则均为±20%。

3.2、文字符号法:

用阿拉伯数字和文字符号两者有规律的组合来表示标称阻值,其允许偏差也用文字符号表示。符号前面的数字表示整数阻值,后面的数字依次表示第一位小数阻值和第二位小数阻值。

                                

3.3、数码法:

在电阻器上用三位数码表示标称值的标志方法。数码从左到右,第一、二位为有效值,第三位为指数,即零的个数,单位为欧。

例:“223”表示22000Ω,即22KΩ±5%

    “102”表示1000Ω,即1KΩ ±5%

3.4、色标法:

用不同颜色的带或点在电阻器表面标出标称阻值和允许偏差。国外电阻大部分采用色标法。

                      

色环含义:前面依次是有效数字,最后一环是允许误差,最后前一环为乘数。当电阻为四环时,前两位为有效数字, 第三位为乘方数,第四位为偏差。 当电阻为五环时,前三位为有效数字, 第四位为乘方数, 第五位为偏差。如下图

 

四、贴片电阻

4.1、封装尺寸

封装与尺寸如下表:

           

注释: 由封装可得元件封装的长,宽尺寸 。方法:前两位一组,后两位一组分别除以4即可得元件封装大致长和宽,单位为毫米

4.2、常规的贴片电阻的封装尺寸及额定功率

是指在70℃环境温度下进行耐久性试验,而且组织变化不超过该试验的允许值时所允许的最大功耗。各规格尺寸的额定功率下表所示。 需要注意的是,有些尺寸的功率是可以兼容的,比如0603在某些阻值范围内可以做到1/10W,在这种情况下一定要参考生产厂家的规格书及相关技术资料。
                               

                               

                                            英制(mil)    公制(mm)    额定功率(W)@ 70°C

                                             0201          0603         1/20W 

                                             0402          1005         1/16W 

                                             0603          1608         1/10W, (1/16W)

                                             0805          2012         1/8W,(1/10W) 

                                             1206          3216         1/4W,(1/8W)

                                             1210          3225         1/3W, (1/4W)

                                             1812          4832         1/2W,

                                             2010          5025         3/4W,( 1/2W)

                                             2512          6432         1W

 

4.3、国内常规贴片电阻的标称阻值及偏差:

贴片电阻生产过程采用激光调阻,加之其电阻膜是高稳定的玻璃釉材料,因此贴片电阻的精度比较高,最普通阻值系列的是E24系列,即±5%的偏差;另外还比较常用的E96阻值系列(即±1%的偏差),称做精密贴片电阻;也有极少数场合用到的E192系列(即±0.5%精度的);其他系列基本不采用。

贴片电阻的阻值一般标注在电阻体表面上,阻值代码规则如下: 

E24系列: 两位有效数字+零的个数 

E96系列: 三位有效数字+零的个数 

举例如下: 
                            

需要指出的是在贴片电阻的中零欧姆电阻的应用很广泛,应用时注意各尺寸片阻允许的额定电流这一参数。

                            

4.4、最大工作电压

该参数是指可以连续施加在电阻两端的最大直流电压或交流有效值电压;元件极限电压取决于电阻器的尺寸和制造工艺。一般情况下该参数不被提起,但是在进行环境试验时必须参考此参数。

                            

4.5、温度系数

电阻的阻值随着工作温度的变化而变化,这种变化用温度系数来表达,单位是ppm/℃。这种变化对电路的工作稳定性将产生不良影响,电路要求越高,选用的电阻温度系数越小,特别是作为基准电压和提供工作点的电阻,更应该注意这一点。贴片电阻的温度系数比较小,大概在(100~500)ppm/℃,选用时注意参考厂家提供的技术资料。 各尺寸规格及阻值段温度系数可以不同,这些一定注意。

 

五、电阻器的作用:

电阻器在电子电路中起阻碍电流作用的元器件,其工作原理为电能转化为热能来实现限流限压的功能。

5.1、分压电路

分压电路实际上是电阻的串联电路,如图所示,它有以下几个特点:

①通过各电阻的电流是同一电流,即各电阻中的电流相等、I = I1 = I2 = I3;
②,在串联电路中,电阻大的导体,它两端的电压也 大,电压的分配与导体的电阻成正比,因此,导体串联具有分压作用。,总电压等于各电阻上的电压降之和,,即V= V1 + V2 + V3;
③总电阻等于各电阻之和,即R=R1 +R2+R3:

                          

5.2、分流电路

2. 分流电路实际上是电阻器的并联电路,如图所示。它有以下几点特点:

①各支路的电压等于总电压;
②总电流等于各支路电流之和,即I = I1 + I2 + I3;
③总电阻的倒数等于各支路倒数之和,即1/R =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

   在实践中经常利用电阻器的并联电路组成分流电路,以对电路中的电流进行分配
                        、

5.3、阻抗匹配电路

如下图所示由电阻器组成的阻抗匹配衰减器、它接在特性阻抗不同的两个网络中间,可以起到匹配阻抗的作用。匹配器中电阻器的阻值可由下式确定,

                       

即式中,Z1和Z2为网络1和网络2的阻抗,它们分别为300Ω和75Ω。将它们代入上面两个公式中,则求得RI=259.8Ω,R2=86.6Ω。

                      

5.4、上拉和下拉电阻的作用

5.4.1、上拉电阻的作用: 

1、当 TTL 电路驱动 COMS 电路时,如果 TTL 电路输出的高电平低于COMS电路的最

低高电平(一般为 3.5V),这时就需要在 TTL 的输出端接上拉电阻,以提高输出高电平的值。  

2、OC门电路必须加上拉电阻,才能使用。  

3、为加大输出引脚的驱动能力,有的单片机管脚上也常使用上拉电阻。  

4、在 COMS 芯片上,为了防止静电造成损坏,不用的管脚不能悬空,一般接上拉电阻产生降低输入阻抗,来提供泄荷的通路。  

5、芯片的管脚加上拉电阻来提高输出电平,从而提高芯片输入信号的噪声容限增强抗干扰能力。 

6、提高总线的抗电磁干扰能力。管脚悬空就比较容易接受外界的电磁干扰。 

7、长线传输中电阻不匹配容易引起反射波干扰,加上下拉电阻是电阻匹配,有效的抑制反射波干扰。

5.4.2、上拉电阻阻值的选择原则包括:   

1、从节约功耗及芯片的灌电流能力考虑应当足够大;电阻大,电流小。   

2、从确保足够的驱动电流考虑应当足够小;电阻小,电流大。   

3、对于高速电路,过大的上拉电阻可能边沿变平缓。

综合考虑 以上三点,通常在 1k 到10k 之间选取。对下拉电阻也有类似道理。

 

下拉电阻同理

5.5、0欧电阻在电路中的作用

1、做为跳线使用。

2、在数字和模拟等混合电路中,往往要求两个地分开,并且单点连接。我们可以用一个0欧的电阻来连接这两个地,而不是直接连在一起。这样做的好处就是,地线被分成了两个网络,在大面积铺铜等处理时,就会方便得多。

3、做保险丝用。由于PCB上走线的熔断电流较大,如果发生短路过流等故障时,很难熔断,可能会带来更大的事故。由于0欧电阻电流承受能力比较弱(其实0欧电阻也是有一定的电阻的,只是很小而已),过流时就先将0欧电阻熔断了,从而将电路断开,防止了更大事故的发生。

4、想测某部分电路的耗电流的时候,可以去掉0ohm电阻,接上电流表,这样方便测耗电流。

5、在布线时,如果实在布不过去了,也可以加一个0欧的电阻

6、在高频信号下,充当电感或电容。(与外部电路特性有关)电感用,主要是解决EMC问题。如地与地,电源和IC Pin间。

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