Introduction to Sociology (Notes)

開発 2023-08-06 18:27:47 訪問数: null

 Chapter One: The Creation and Development of Sociology

The first chapter of sociology

  • Historical Conditions for the Founding of Sociology
  • The need for social change: The direct root and key factor of sociology is the need for social change
  • Promote the development of natural science
  • The accumulation of social experience research
  • A foundation of social thought laid down by social research pioneers
  • The main representatives of the founding period of sociology
  • Auguste Comte : "Father of Sociology" , first proposed the concept of sociology in "Course of Positive Philosophy" in 1838; he is the authoritative representative of positivism.
  1. Comte's sociological thought:
  1. Classification of sciences: Sociology is the highest level of science (based on Saint-Simon's classification of sciences: Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Sociology);
  2. The research object of sociology: Comte divides sociology into social dynamics and social statics
  3. Research methods: use empirical methods to study human society. Comte believed that the empirical method of studying nature must be used to study human society to discover objective and free social laws. "Understand in order to predict, predict in order to control", the empirical methods created by Comte are observation method, experiment method, comparative method and historical method. Comte explained the five meanings of positivism in his book "Introduction to Positive Philosophy":
  • realistic rather than fantasy
  • useful rather than useless
  • reliable rather than suspicious
  • exact rather than vague
  • positive rather than negative
  1. Comte’s contribution to sociology: he put forward the idea of ​​establishing sociology in the classification of sciences, clarified the study of social order and progress from a holistic perspective, and proposed positivism and four basic research methods in sociological research .
  • Karl Marx
  1. Marx is the main founder of sociology
  2. Marx founded the basic theory of sociology
  3. Marx's Sociological Theory Pays Attention to Practical
  • Herbert Spencer : He believes that society is an organism just like living things, but society is not a simple organism but a "superorganism" . Spencer is a famous British bourgeois sociologist, philosopher and educator, known as "Aristotle of Victorian England". Representative works include: "Social Statics", "Sociological Research", "Principles of Sociology"
  1. social organism theory
  2. social evolution
  • The main representative of the formative period of sociology
  • Emile Durkheim (France): France and the first person in Europe to teach sociology at a university . Three discussions on "On the Division of Labor in Society", "Code of Sociological Method", "On Suicide" ("On Suicide" is an example of Durkheim using one social fact to explain another social fact); Durkheim's social The sociological perspectives include the object of study in sociology, the theory of social solidarity, the theory of anomie, the principles of sociological research methods, the methods of functional analysis and historical analysis
  1. Objects of Sociology The so-called social facts are ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of people themselves, and are imposed on each individual through a coercive force. Social facts have the characteristics of priority, externality, objectivity and compulsion. It is emphasized that the coercion of social facts on individuals is not only an external coercion, but also a coercion realized in an internalized way.
  2. Social Solidarity Theory: A state of social connection characterized by attraction that coordinates, cooperates, and unites individuals with individuals, individuals with groups, and groups with groups. "Collective consciousness" (divided into two types: "mechanical solidarity" and "organic solidarity". The transition from traditional society to modern society is the society from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity)
  3. Anomie theory: a social state in which the regulation of individual desires and behaviors by society lacks uniform norms and sufficient constraints. Durkheim believes that the existence and development of anomie is not conducive to the stability and development of society. Durkheim's research aims to seek the power and ways of exercising control over individuals. Causes of social anomie:

(1) Personal desires are rapidly growing in modern social institutions

(2) Modern society cannot satisfy everyone's individual desires

(3) Sudden changes in society make individual desires lose their social binding force, causing crises and turmoil in society

  1. Guidelines for Research Methods in Sociology
  1. The first and most fundamental maxim is to study social facts as objects
  2. Sociology should abandon the kind of research that takes the abstract social whole as the object, and take the specific social content, elements and different aspects as the research object;
  3. The approach of "explaining social facts in terms of social facts" must be followed. The book "On Suicide" is his example of using one social fact (social integration) to explain another social fact (suicide)
  4. Note the distinction between normal (universal) and pathological (non-universal) phenomena
  5. Comparative method is the most fundamental method of sociology
  1. Functional Analysis and Historical Analysis Methods: The systematic method of sociological functional analysis reasoning was created by Durkheim, who clearly distinguished between historical and functional modes of inquiry, between functional outcomes and individual motivations.
  • Max Weber : (German) "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", "Economy and Society "
  1. Understanding Sociology: The research object of sociology is social action, social action is the interaction and common action of actors who take actions to influence another person or more people. Specifically, it is manifested in social customs, social control, social problems and social needs. The fundamental approach to the study of social action is understanding.
  2. Types of social action: Rationality is the core concept of Weber’s theory of society. Starting from this, he organized social action into four types: ① Purpose-means rational action; ② Value rational action; ③ Emotional action; ④ traditional action
  3. Ideal Type: In order to avoid the individualized and specialized research methods of the German School of Humanities and History, Weber proposed a key conceptual tool - the ideal type. Ideal types do not refer to moral ideals, nor do they refer to average states. The ideal type contains the meaning of emphasizing the typical action process. On the one hand, as a conceptual tool for intellectual construction, it is highly generalized and abstract, so it is different from empirical facts; on the other hand, as a conceptual tool for investigating reality, It is also a generalization and abstraction based on empirical facts, so it has the function of making oneself divorced from reality and then to understand reality.
  4. The theory of bureaucracy (later)

Section 2 Main Theoretical Schools of Sociology

  • Chicago School: Sociology originated in Europe, but the world's first sociology department was established in the United States . Major academic achievements of the Chicago School:
  1. The Chicago School pioneered the study of modern urban communities
  2. The Theory of the City of the Humanities District
  3. The Chicago School Promoted the Perfection of Sociological Survey Research Methods
  4. Symbolic Interactionism
  • Structural-functionalism: It emerged in the 1930s, during the period of the world economic crisis, and the representatives were Parsons and Merton. Structural-functionalism focuses on how social equilibrium is maintained and continuously restored. According to structural-functionalism, society is first and foremost a whole.
  1. Parsons believes that if any society wants to survive, it must have the general conditions necessary to maintain the system: ①adaptation:; ②achievement; ③integration; ④dimensional model
  2. Merton: Social Theory and Social Structure offers a more flexible approach to functional analysis.
  • Conflict theory: Conflict theory originates from Marx's social thought, and Marx's theory of class struggle is considered to be the earliest, deepest and most thorough theory of conflict.
  1. Lewis A. Coser : Functional Conflict Theory . "The Social Function of Conflict" Social conflict not only has the negative function of destruction, but also has the positive function.
  2. 达伦多夫：辩证冲突论。《工业社会的阶级和阶级矛盾》。达伦多夫认为，“我们称作社会分层的不平等体系，只不过是社会权力结构的派生物”这属于社会分层理论的冲突论。
  • 交换理论：
  1. 霍曼斯：交换理论是美国社会学家霍曼斯所建立的。人类的相互交往和社会联合都是一种交换行为，经济学的交换原则可以推广到一切社会行为，人们的互动可以被理解为酬赏的交换，一个人如何行动取决于其行动所能得到的酬赏或可能招致的惩罚。缺陷：只看到个人交换行为的心理方面，只讲交换行为建造社会结构，而没有看到社会结构对交换行为的影响。
  2. 布劳：《社会生活中的交换与权力》交换常常是在资源和权力分配的不平等基础上展开的。
  • 符号互动论：起源于乔治・赫伯特・米德，美国社会学家库利、托马斯和米德等人的符号互动论的早期代表，主要代表人物有：赫伯特・布鲁默、欧文・戈夫曼。基本观点：人类的互动是以符号为中介的，对共享的符号的理解是社会互动的基础。
  • 社会批判理论：法兰克福学派所主张的理论道路。有三个方面的理解：
  1. 法兰克福学派相信资本主义制度正在使得人们逐渐失去了批判社会的能力
  2. 法兰克福学派认为在社会研究领域存在同样的问题，特别是反映在实证主义社会学的研究取向上
  3. 法兰克福学派的局限性：没有找到真正解决资本主义根本出路，从而陷入历史发展的悲观主义情绪。
  • 当代社会学理论的代表人物
  1. Alfred Schutz: Deeply influenced by phenomenological philosophy, he founded phenomenological sociology . His representative works include "Phenomenology of the Social World" and "Structure of the Living World". He emphasized the intersubjective characteristics of the everyday world , the world is "ours" rather than "mine"; the social world is a system in an objective sense, but a meaning shared by capable subjects.
  2. Michel Foucault: Madness and Civilization, Words and Things, Discipline and Punishment, A History of Sexuality
  3. Anthony Giddens : The Constitution of Society, Nation-State and Violence, Consequences of Presentity, The Third Way. Giddens tried to overcome the theoretical dilemma between determinism and volitionism that overemphasizes action, and believed that social structure is produced and reproduced through people's actions. On the one hand, social structure does restrict people's behavior, but on the other hand People can also actively act on and react to social structures in their daily activities, so the theory is called structural theory.
  4. Jurgen Habermas: "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere", "Science and Technology as Ideology", "The Crisis of Legitimacy", "The Theory of Communicative Action"
  5. Pierre Bourdieu: Outline of Theory of Practice, Segmentation, National Elite, Practice and Reflection

Section 3 One Hundred Years of Chinese Sociology

  • The historical conditions for the introduction of sociology to China:
  1. A group of outstanding intellectuals such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, Yan Fu, Zhang Taiyan (Zhang Binglin) were amazed at their governance system and strategies when they came into contact with Western theories
  2. The scholar who put forward the name of "Sociology" in the book "Benevolence" is: Tan Sitong
  3. The one who set up "Group Learning" in Wanmu Thatched Cottage in Changxing, Guangzhou is: Kang Youwei
  • The Establishment of the Disciplinary Status of Early Sociology in China
  • Team and Institutional Construction: Western Missionaries, Study Abroad Personnel, and Translated Works
  1. Sociology Team Formation
  2. Institutionalization of schooling
  3. Establishment of academic societies
  4. Publication of periodicals and monographs
  • The rise of social surveys
  1. Early Autonomous Social Inquiry
  2. Field investigation of Chinese sociologists' new horizons
  • The Introduction and Practice of Marxist Sociology
  1. "Sociology is a science"
  2. Investigation and Research of Chinese Marxists
  • Faculty adjustment and withdrawal of Sociology
  • Maintenance and Revocation: The Reasons Why Chinese Sociology Was Retired
  1. Copy the Soviet model         
  2. own misunderstanding
  • Rehash and Doom
  • Restoration and Reconstruction of Chinese Sociology
  • Rectification of name: In December 1978, the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee created a favorable external environment for the restoration and reconstruction of Chinese sociology. From February 15th to 18th, 1979, the Preparatory Office of the National Philosophy and Social Science Planning Conference held a "Sociological Symposium" in Beijing to jointly discuss the recovery and reconstruction of sociology. Learn to rectify names.
  • The theory of "five viscera and six internal organs" is Fei Xiaotong's terminology borrowed from traditional Chinese medicine as a metaphor for the construction of sociology.
  1. Five internal organs: academic organizations, professional research institutions, sociology departments of universities, library and reference centers, and publications.
  2. Liu Fu (six basic courses): Introduction to Sociology, Social Survey Research Methods, Social Psychology, Urban and Rural Sociology (Introduction to Community), Cultural Anthropology, and Foreign Social Theories.
  • effect
  • The localization of Chinese sociology: As the organizer and leader of the restoration and reconstruction of social sciences, Fei Xiaotong proposed to build China's own sociology at the beginning, and then proposed to establish a sociology with Chinese characteristics. In May 1982, Fei Xiaotong's speech "Some Opinions on Establishing Sociology in China" at the annual meeting of the Chinese Sociological Association clearly proposed the establishment of "a discipline guided by Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, closely integrated with China's reality, Sociology Serving Socialist Construction" . The basic approach to realize the localization of sociology:
  1. We should take Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of "Three Represents" and the Scientific Outlook on Development as our guides for action, and earnestly carry out research on social phenomena.
  2. The basic task of sociology is to study the coordinated development of economy and society and the socialization of people
  3. Based on the reality of Chinese society, adhere to the integration of theory with practice, combine macro and micro, theoretical research and empirical research, so that sociological research can effectively serve the cause of socialist construction in our country
  4. Adopt a positive attitude, make innovations on the basis of learning from the excellent achievements of foreign sociology and Chinese sociology in the past, gradually establish a theoretical knowledge system of Chinese sociology, and form a Chinese sociology school
  5. Create a team of sociology professionals who are willing and able to fight for this

Chapter 2 Sociological Research Methods

Section 1 The research object, characteristics and functions of sociology

  • object of study in sociology

Sociology : A social science that studies the relationship between individuals and society.

  1. The word sociology was first proposed by Auguste Comte, who believed that sociology is the science of studying society
  2. Durkheim: sociology the science of social facts
  3. Weber: Sociology is the science of social action
  4. Sorokin: Sociology is the science of social relations
  5. Georg Simmel : Sociology is a social science that studies the relationship between the individual and society . "Sociology-Research on the Forms of Socialization" "Basic Issues of Sociology: Individuals and Society", he opposed positivism, believed that society is a real existence independent of individuals, and also opposed the abstract and only The existence of the individual is the real point of view, and the unity of the society and the individual is advocated. In 1908 and 1917, he published two books, "Sociology—A Study on the Form of Socialization" and "Basic Problems of Sociology: Individual and Society", which profoundly discussed and studied the interaction between individual and society. relation.
  • Features of Sociology :
  1. Holistic : Sociology examines and analyzes the relationship between individuals and society from a holistic perspective. This integrity is the most basic feature determined by the founders of sociology and insisted on by later generations. The most important perspective of the so-called sociological imagination is integrity.
  2. Comprehensiveness : two meanings:
  1. Compared with political science, economics, law and other disciplines, society does not specialize in the study of a social phenomenon, but studies the relationship between individuals and society in all social phenomena, which is not available in other disciplines.
  2. The comprehensiveness of sociology is also reflected in its search for regularity from the general connections of various social phenomena.
  1. Empirical: After sociology has become an independent discipline, it always takes the empirical knowledge obtained from social survey research as the basis for the development of the discipline .
  2. Applicability:
  1. The knowledge of sociology is very close to social life. It is practiced and experienced by people in daily life. Mastering sociology can help people use sociology to understand and analyze public problems in social life more consciously.
  2. Sociology focuses on the practical problems in social life, and is also the concern of all members of society
  3. The theories, methods and research results of sociology can be used not only by the government, but also by groups and ordinary people
  • The function of sociology: After sociology was restored and rebuilt, Fei Xiaotong said: I think the most fundamental task of sociology is to solve the problem of how a person living in society learns to be a human being. This refers to the educational function of sociology.
  • Research functions: descriptive function, explanatory function, predictive function, normative function
  1. Descriptive functions: Refers to those exploratory studies conducted to understand and grasp what happened and what happened . Its purpose is to ascertain and describe in detail the specific laws of the occurrence and change of social things and phenomena;
  2. Explanatory function: refers to the process of explaining the subjective and objective factors that affect the occurrence and change of social facts from their causal connection; "why"
  3. Predictive function: to remind future social events and status;
  4. Normative function: It is the process of determining social goals and the actions and means adopted to achieve the predetermined goals, and evaluating the rationality and feasibility of social goals, actions and means. Sociological research should also answer the question of "what should be" on the basis of answering "what will be".
  • Educational functions: 1. Help people complete socialization consciously; 2. Help people choose rationally
  • Social management functions: 1. Establish norms; 2. Provide models; 3. Feedback information
  • The function of social criticism: Another aspect of sociology's participation in society is to expose old ideas, old concepts, and things and behaviors that hinder social progress, conduct theoretical analysis in a realistic manner, and put forward opinions and suggestions to overcome and solve problems.

Section 2 Methodology of Sociological Research

  • The main issues discussed in the meaning of sociological research methodology:
  1. the nature of social phenomena;
  2. Sociological research methods and basic assumptions;
  3. The Role of Value in Social Research
  • Positivist methodology: refers to the theory of methods that follow the laws of nature and use universal causal laws to study social phenomena; represented by Comte's "Course in Positive Philosophy"; and matured through Durkheim's "Code of Sociological Method". The basic viewpoints of positivist methodology:
  1. Both social phenomena and natural phenomena exist objectively, and the laws of natural science are also applicable to the study of social phenomena
  2. The purpose of science is to explain the causality of phenomena, and on this basis to predict the future development trend of phenomena
  3. Advocate for empirical research and social investigation
  4. Statistically oriented, with particular emphasis on quantitative research methods
  • Humanistic methodology: also known as anti-positivist methodology; representatives: William Dilthey and Max Weber . They believe that people have free will, and they must not follow the methods of natural sciences to study social sciences, but can only use humanistic research methods. Basic point of view:
  1. Emphasize the difference between natural science and social science. It is believed that natural science is to explore the general laws of nature, while social science is to explain the connection of individual and specific things in society. It is non-repeatable and has no general laws;
  2. The purpose of sociological theoretical research is to "understand" rather than "explain"
  3. It is believed that sociological research should be based on the micro level, starting from everyday and ordinary things, and studying the explanations made by human beings to social phenomena and the meanings given to them, rather than simply reducing to the level of natural laws.
  • Marxist Sociological Methodology: Basic Viewpoints:
  1. recognize objective social laws
  2. Society is constantly developing and changing, and the social process is the result of the interaction between people
  3. Historical materialism, emphasizing the historical practice of human beings, paying attention to the social and material environment that restricts human actions
  • Main schools of contemporary sociological methodology:
  • Post-positivism: Popper's falsification theory; Kuhn's "scientific revolution theory" and "paradigm theory"
  1. Acknowledging the historicity, pluralism, development and relativity of theory
  2. Various methods in social science research have rationality and limitations, and the diversity of methods is recognized, and research methods are determined by specific topics
  3. Emphasize the quantitative processing of data in the dimension of social life
  4. Emphasize a "value-free" research that ignores or downplays the underlying assumptions and values ​​of those who conduct such scientific research.
  • New Humanism: In the late 1980s, it was also called New Weberism. Norbert Elias' "Sign Theory" pointed out that signs are not abstract and static, and the formation of signs is the product of the combination of biological, social and personal processes.
  • Critical hermeneutic theory: Gadamer's "Truth and Method" is known as a milestone in "examining truth from the perspective of historical hermeneutics".
  1. Emphasize reflection and criticism, and constantly transform the imperfections of the existing society
  2. Emphasis on reaching consensus through "non-forced communication"
  • Postmodernism: A philosophical trend formed in the field of culture and literature in the 1980s. The main points:
  1. Against the distinction between subject and object of research
  2. Oppose the modern scientific view of time and space, and oppose the existing understanding of time and space and history with a holistic view
  3. against modern science's view of truth
  4. Against the Dualism of Appearance and Essence
  5. against ontology

Section 3 Sociological Research Methods and Methods

  • 统计调查: 是根据调查的目的与要求，用科学的调查方法，有计划、有组织地搜集数据信息资料的统计工作过程。

统计调查需要遵守的原则：

  1. 准确性原则，要求实事求是，如实反映情况
  2. 及时性原则，要及时反映，及时预报
  3. 完整性原则，数字与情况要相结合。
  • 普遍调查：又称全面调查，简称普查。是为特定目的而专门组织的一次性或周期性的总体调查（两种方式：1、建立专门的普查机构；2、利用调查单位的原始记录和核算资料）

1、普查的原则：

  1. 必须统一规定调查资料所属的标准时点
  2. 正确确定调查期限、选择登记时间，并尽可能在最短的时间内完成
  3. 严格筛选调查项目，定义明确
  4. 普查尽可能按一定的周期进行，以便于研究现象的发展趋势及期规律性

          2、普查的优缺点

  1. 优点：在确定调查对象上比较简单，资料全面系统，数据一般较准确
  2. 缺点：工作量大，时间性强，组织工作复杂，调查内容有限，易产生重复和遗漏现象
  • 抽样调查: 
  1. 涵义：是非全面调查的一种，它是从总体中按一定的方法抽选一部分单位进行调查，并对此做出估计和判断的一种调查方法。
  2. 类别：概率抽样和非概率抽样
  3. 概率特点：①按随机原则抽选样本；②总体中每一个单位都有相等的概率被抽中；③可以用一定的概率来保证将误差控制在规定的范围之内
  • 统计报表：是按统一规定的表格形式，统一的报送程序和报表时间，自上而下提供基础统计资料，是一种具有法律性质的报表制度
  • 问卷调查
  1. 问卷调查的涵义：是以一组问题获得相关、有效信息的一种方法。美国社会学家艾尔・巴比称：问卷是社会调查的支柱
  2. 内容：个人的基本情况、行为和态度三个方面；
  3. 主要类型：自填式与代填式
  • 实地研究：20世纪20-30年代，英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基等在实践中创造性地应用，并作出了卓越贡献，将日常生活中的实地观察与思考发展成为一项科学技术，称之为实地研究。
  • 实地研究的涵义：又称田野调查；是一种深入研究对象内部，以参与观察和非结构访问的方式收集资料，并通过这些资料进行定性分析，解释社会现象的一种研究方法。强调亲临其境，融入社会，和被研究者“打成一片”的社会学研究方法是实地研究法。
  • 个案研究：是一种以某个社会单位或案例为一个整体，进行详细考察的方法
  • 典型调查
  1. 在研究对象中，在意识地选取个别或少数具有代表性的典型社会单位进行深入和周密的实地调查研究，以推断调查总体的一种研究方法。
  2. 典型调查的选择：（1）先进的；（2）中间的；（3）落后的。
  3. 典型调查的优点与不足：

（1）优点：可用较少的人力物力，在较短的时间内对事物作较深入的研究

（2）不足：典型的选择容易受主观意识的诱导，所获取的资料难以标准化，结论的客观性和普遍性易收到较多的质疑

  • 访谈法和观察法：
  1. 访谈法：指研究者通过有计划、有目的地与被研究者交谈，进行调查和收集资料的方法。有结构访谈和非结构访谈之分。
  1. 结构访谈：用高度结构化或标准化的调查提纲进行访谈，范围明确，所得资料便于整理与分析，如民意调查；
  2. 非结构访谈不使用或使用简单的调查提纲，只围绕主题提出一些开放性、较为笼统的问题，被调查者可以充分地发表自己的意见，提供较为广泛和较深度的资料，但整理和分析较为困难。
  1. 观察法：研究者有计划、有目的地用感官来考察事物或现象的知觉过程。

观察法的分类：

  1. 参与观察：指研究者在某种程度上置身于观察对象的环境和社会活动中，努力使自己真正地与被研究群体相通，通过亲身感受和观察，直接获取资料的方法。参与观察法的创始人之一：马林诺夫斯基《西太平洋的航海著》
  2. Non-participant observation: refers to the method in which the researcher always keeps a certain distance from the observed person, that is, as an "outsider" and relies on his own perception to obtain information.
  3. The characteristics of observation method: ① naturalness; ② directness; ③ extensiveness;
  4. Advantages of the observation method: ① First-hand information can be obtained directly; ② Detailed and reliable residences can be obtained with the help of on-site, recording, photographing and other auxiliary means; ③ Especially suitable for research objects without language communication skills;
  5. Disadvantages of the observation method: ① High requirements, difficult to achieve; ② Difficult to control environmental time variables, which brings difficulties to quantitative analysis and statistical judgment; ③ Easily affected by the value concept and emotional factors of the observer, which is easy to cause loss and damage to the collected data negative impact, etc.;
  • Experimental Method:
  • The concept and type of experimental method:
  1. Concept: The experimental method is based on certain research assumptions, under controlled conditions, through observation, recording and analysis, to discover or confirm the causal relationship between variables or social phenomena.
  2. Types of experiments:
  1. According to the test environment, it is divided into: field experiment, laboratory experiment
  2. According to the experimental method, it is divided into: standard experiment, quasi-experiment, control experiment, double-blind experiment
  • The role of experimentation
  1. Judge the causal relationship between social phenomena or variables through experiments, and put forward new hypotheses for a certain theory;
  2. Discover new facts that were previously unknown and unexplained through experiments, and establish new theories
  • Advantages and disadvantages of social experiments
  • Differences between sociological experiments and natural science experiments
  1. The object of the experiment is small groups and human activities, not objects, and the experimenter and the experimentee will interact with each other
  2. The subject of research is social phenomena or human attitudes, behavioral characteristics, rather than natural phenomena;
  3. The conditions and measures of the experiment are difficult to control, firstly, the experimental object is difficult to control; secondly, the situation is difficult to control
  • Documentation method: also known as document method, program method and non-intervention research method.
  • The meaning of the literature method and the source of the literature: it does not directly compare the research object to the need for information, but collects existing literature in the form of text, numbers, symbols, voice, pictures, etc., without affecting the research object. Methods of analyzing and exploring the phenomena of personal and social relationships . Document sources: official documents, personal documents, mass media.
  • Advantages and disadvantages of literature method:

Advantages: (1) The data information remains unchanged (2) The cost is low (3) It can study historical phenomena (4) It is suitable for vertical and horizontal analysis

Disadvantages: (1) The objective authenticity of many documents is difficult to verify (2) Due to privacy and confidentiality restrictions, relevant materials are not easy to obtain (3) Some documents lack standardized information, making it difficult to catalog and compare and analyze

Section 4 General Procedures and Analysis Types of Sociological Research

  • General Program in Sociological Studies
  • Planning stage:
  1. Select a research topic: innovative, moderate, and operable;
  2. Preliminary exploration: Preliminary exploration, collecting relevant literature and materials, contacting research objects, so as to "have a bottom in mind"
  3. Establish research hypotheses : establish research hypotheses, make theoretical explanations, and clarify concepts
  4. Formulate the research plan : generally include clarifying the research content, purpose and significance, selecting the survey site, determining the survey objects and research units (individuals, groups, organizations and communities, etc.), determining the research methods and methods, formulating questionnaires, scales and interviews Outline, prepare survey tools, coordinate and budget research funds.
  5. Organizational work : including the composition and training of researchers, and communication with collaborating units, etc.
  • Implementation phase
  • Summary stage (analyzing data and writing reports)
  • Types of Analysis in Sociological Research
  • Qualitative analysis:
  1. It is an analysis method to summarize, classify and compare the collected data, and then summarize the nature and characteristics of a certain type of phenomenon ;
  2. Main sources of qualitative information: field sources, literature sources

Three steps: (1) data review; (2) data classification; (3) data collection and editing

  1. The Significance and Insufficiency of Qualitative Analysis Method.
  • Quantitative analysis:
  1. It is a method to analyze the quantitative characteristics, quantitative relationship and quantitative changes of social phenomena.
  2. Schools and Representatives of Quantitative Analysis
  3. The source and collation of quantitative analysis data

定量分析资料汇总的目的：

（1）初步了解数据的分布情况

（2）编制次数分布表作准备

（3）为深入的统计分析作准备

（4）便于保存调查资料

  1. 定量分析的软件系统
  • 定性分析与定量分析的关系

1、不同点：（1）着重点不同；（2）依据不同；（3）手段不同；（4）学科基础不同；

（5）结论表述不同

第三章 社会与文化

第一节 什么是社会

  • 社会的涵义与特征
  • 社会的涵义：是人们交互作用中产生的各种社会关系的总和；社会的两大派别：唯实论和唯名论。
  1. 唯实论：认为社会不仅是个体的集合，而且是一个客观存在的实体，有其自身的发展规律；
  2. 唯名论：认为社会只是一种集合名称，而非实体，真正客观存在的只是个人。
  • 社会的特征：
  1. 社会以人为主体:人是社会关系系统最基本的要素，是社会生活的开拓者。
  2. 社会以人们的物质生产活动为基础
  3. 社会以人与人的交往为纽带
  4. 社会来源于自然又不同于自然
  • 社会结构概念与类型
  • 社会结构概念：是指社会诸要素之间在相互作用过程中形成的相对稳定的关系。

从三个方面把握生产关系结构：①人们对生产资料的关系，即劳动者与生产资料的结合形式②劳动者在生产中相互交换活动的关系，即人与人之间的合作方式③劳动产品的分配关系以及由它所直接决定的消费关系。

  • 社会结构类型：
  1. 关系性社会结构：指社会结构按照一定的秩序和一定的相互关系组合，这种相互关系是社会结构的本质
  2. 实体性社会结构：指导社会结构由一些作为社会实体的基本单元和要素构成
  3. 规范性社会结构：指导社会结构中的各种社会实体同时作为社会规范而存在着
  • 社会建设与社会管理
  • 社会建设：在社会领域不断建立和完善各种能够合理配置资源和机会的社会体制和运行机制。（20世纪，孙中山《建国方略》从心理建设、物质建设、社会建设三个方面完整地阐述了实现中国现代化的伟大理想和实施方案）。
  • 社会管理：政府和社会组织为促进社会系统协调运行，对社会系统的组成部分、社会生活的不同领域以及社会发展的各个环节进行组织、协调、监督和控制的过程。
  1. 从主体上看，具有多样性
  2. 从手段上看，最重要的是制度建设和道德建设
  3. 从目标上看，维系社会秩序和化解社会矛盾是社会管理的总体目标
  4. From the perspective of function, social management can promote a more equitable and reasonable allocation of social resources and social opportunities, and create an orderly and dynamic basic operating conditions and social environment for promoting economic and social development.

Section 2 Basic Elements of Society

  • population:
  • The concept of population: refers to the totality of living individuals of a certain quantity and quality connected by certain social relations in a specific area. Dual Attributes of Population: Natural Attributes and Social Attributes
  • Population quantity and quality:
  1. Population: It refers to the stipulation of the population, which refers to the sum of living individuals at a certain time and in a certain area. Usually, the population refers to the population size.
  2. Population quality: Also known as population quality, it is a regulation on the quality of population resources, including population physical quality, scientific and cultural quality, and ideological quality.
  • Population issues (population issues in our country):
  1. population quality
  2. rapid population movement
  3. Population imbalance
  4. Population aging accelerates
  5. Population gender imbalance
  • natural resources
  • Characteristics of natural resources: refers to the sum of all natural conditions associated with human activities, and is the external condition on which society depends for survival and development.
  1. Classification of natural resources: (1) Environmental resources, such as light, heat, air, water and land . (2) Biological resources: refers to plants and microorganisms in nature. (3) Mineral resources (in the classification of natural resources, natural gas belongs to: mineral resources)
  2. Characteristics of natural resources:
  1. limited natural resources
  2. Infinity of natural resources
  3. Systematic nature of natural resources
  4. Inhomogeneity of natural resources
  • The role of natural resources in social development
  1. Natural resources are the necessary conditions for the survival and development of human society
  2. Natural resources provide the source of social production and subsistence materials
  3. Natural resources affect the layout of social production sectors and the direction of production development
  4. Natural resources affect the speed of social development
  • environment
  • The concept of environment: refers to the human living environment composed of other living things and non-living substances surrounding human beings, and is the sum of all external conditions that affect human survival and development.
  • environment function

(1) The environment has a supporting role for human beings

(2) The environment has a supply function for human beings

(3) The environment has a regulating effect on human beings

(4) The environment has a cultural enlightenment effect on human beings

  • Environmental Utilization and Protection
  • Culture (omitted)

Section 3 What is Culture

  • cultural concept
  • 文化的涵义：是人类创造出来的一切物质产品和非物质产品的总和。其中首先给文化定义的是英国人类学家爱德华・泰勒，1871年在《原始文化》一书中指出文化是知识 、信仰、艺术、伦理道德、法律、风俗、习惯和社会成员习得 的能力等的总体。 1936年英国人类学家马林诺斯在《文化论》中推进泰勒文化定义的表述。
  • 文化的特征：
  1. 创造性：文化不论是物质形态的文化还是文化，者不是天生的，而是人类在长期共同生活中创造出来或衍生出来的。例：水不是文化，自来水才是文化；刮风不是文化，利用风力发电才是文化
  2. 习得性：文化不是先天遗传的本能，而是后天通过学习和模仿获得的知识、经验、技能和习惯等，“吃饭不是文化、吃什么，怎样吃法才是文化”
  3. 共享性：凡文化都是一个群体、一个地区、一个民族，乃至一个国家人们共同创造 、共同享有、共同遵守的。“个别人的偏好不能成为文化”；
  4. 累积性：文化是一个连续不断的创新过程。
  5. 特殊性和共性
  • 文化结构：文化特质、文化集丛、文化模式
  1. 文化特质：是组成文化的最小单位，也称文化元素；（一只茶杯、一个符号等都是文化特质）
  2. 文化集丛：功能上互相整合的一组文化物质，它们结合起来同发挥一项功能，以满足人的某种需要，这些文化物质就组成一个文化集丛。（日本的茶道是一个著名的文化集丛：包括茶叶、茶具、水、沏茶方法、饮茶方法和规矩等）
  3. 文化模式：指由许多文化集丛结合而成的一个文化整体，而与其他文化模式相区别。
  • 文化规范体系
  • Custom: One of the oldest and most pervasive cultural phenomena, almost as old as human history. The lifestyle formed by people due to the natural environment and the development level of productivity, as well as the values, language, and behavioral norms formed by people's mutual communication, have been repeatedly practiced and gradually formed customs. Customs are relatively long-lasting and stable behavior patterns, but with changes in the enthusiasm for social material life, customs are also changing. As an important social norm to adjust people's behavior, custom has the most common adjustment range and plays a role in all fields of social life, which is unmatched by any other social norms.
  • Morality: It is derived from the deepening of customs. No matter from the perspective of governing the country or improving the quality of life of the people, moral construction is indispensable.
  • Law: The most coercive norm of social conduct, with its own distinctive features. On the one hand, the law is impartial, and what kind of law is formulated is not based on the principle of equality for all, but to reflect the meaning of the ruling class. Laws, on the other hand, are mandatory . The social functions of the law include punishment, deterrence and education, and the three functions of the law are linked together and are indispensable.
  • Religion: Religion, as a complex of beliefs, ideas, organizations, and systems, is an important cultural phenomenon formed in the history of human social development, and it is also an important norm for adjusting people's social behavior, and will exist for a long time in the process of historical development (cults Essentially different from religion :)
  1. Religions persuade people to love life, respect the secular world, and maintain social order; cults preach the end of the world, belittle the secular world, persuade people to destroy, and disrupt social order
  2. The gods of religions are superhuman, and religious teachings are classics; the gods of cults are in the world, and they regard the leader who lives in this world as a god, and regard the words of the leader as classics
  3. Religion promotes fraternity, loves believers, and loves the public; cults harm people, cruelly harm believers, and harm others.
  • Cultural exchange: refers to the process of communication, borrowing, conflict and integration between two cultures starting from cultural transmission.
  • 文化传播：是指某种文化元素随同社会交往而扩散，为其他社会所吸收的过程。（文化交流是从文化传播开始的，没有文化传播，就不可能有文化交流）“文化传播”这个概念始见于英国人类学家泰勒的《原始文化》一书。文化传播要有载体，最原始、最基本的载体是人，人是流动是文化传播的重要载体。
  • 文化冲突：是指异质文化在传播，接触中出现的互相排斥的倾向和状态。文化冲突的根源除了民族性之外，更有阶级性。
  • 文化采借：又译为文化杂交，指一种文化或吸收另一种文化的某些文化元素或文化集丛，融入本文化的过程。采借的选择性：①有用性；②符合或者接近本民族的价值观与民族外来文化元素或集丛，容易被采借；
  • 文化多样性
  • 文化震惊：是指生活在某一文化中的人，当他初次接触到另一文化模式时所产生的思想上的迷惑与心理上的震撼。
  • 主文化与亚文化
  1. 主文化：又称主流文化，是在社会上占主导地位的，为统治集团倡导，并被多数社会成员所接受的文化。
  2. 亚文化：仅为社会上一部分成员所接受的或为某一地区、某一群体特有的文化。
  • 文化中心主义和文化相对主义
  1. 文化中心主义：将本民族或本群体的文化模式作为中心和标准，以此衡量和评价其他文化，常常怀疑、贬低、甚至敌视自己所不熟悉的文化；
  2. 文化相对主义：各种不同的文化模式是不能评价和比较的。
  • 文化自觉
  • 什么是文化自觉：指生活在一定文化中的人对自己的文化有“自知之明”，对他人的文化有“识人之明”。“文化自觉”是费孝通提出的。1990年12月，费孝通赴日本参加 “东亚社会国际研讨会” ，做了题为《人的研究在中国》的讲话，指出“各美其美，美人之美，美美与共，天下大同”，这四句话是“文化自觉”的历程的概括。
  • 文化自觉的内容：
  1. 文化自觉关注了中国现代化的反思
  2. 文化自觉关注了文化断裂下的主体再造
  3. 文化自觉提出了美美与共的价值诉求（美国著名学家塞缪尔・亨廷顿《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》）

第四章 社会化与社会角色

第一节 什么是社会化

          社会化是人的需要与环境、教育的矛盾的辩证统一，社会角色是人的多种社会属性或社会关系的反映。

  • 社会化概述：
  • 社会化的内涵：是社会对个人的文化教化和个人对社会主动选择与能动调适的统一过程。
  1. 三个方面的理解：
  1. 从时间方面理解：即个人社会化涉及人生发展的全过程
  2. 从内容方面理解：个人社会化关注个人作为社会一员所应具有的全部文化遗产
  3. 从关系方面理解：个人社会化注重个人与社会的交互作用以及个人社会的结果
  1. 社会化带有强制性的特点：人的社会化作为个人与社会互动的成果，是强制性和能动性的统一。
  1. 人类生命个体无先天行为模式，不会自然而然地成为社会人
  2. 个人在社会化过程中，常常缺乏主动性和自觉性
  • 社会化的内容：生活技能社会化、价值观念社会化、政治社会化、行为社会化、角色社会化
  • 社会化的类型
  • 基本社会化：就是生物人通过社会文化教化，获得人的社会性，获得社会生活资格的过程。基本社会化的任务：（1）生理性成熟（2）社会性成熟。基本社会化还有一种特殊表现形式，即一个人为适应特定角色需要而进行的知识准备过程，例如：职业学校教育和岗前培训和岗位培训。
  • 继续社会化：是人在成年以后的社会化，或称二级社会化。
  1. 继续社会化的必要性：
  1. 社会是不断变化发展的，任何个人的现有知识、才能，都难以适应未来社会的要求，因而，基本社会化只是为人的基本生存和发展能力打下基础，一个人要适应未来社会的环境和要求，只有在个人与社会的交互作用中继续学习，不断提高。
  2. 现代社会中，科学技术飞速发展，人们面临着知识的增长与更新急剧加快的潮流，因而，一个人如果不在更广阔的范围内学习，接受自己所需要的新知识，就可能被社会淘汰
  3. The scope of education in the period of basic socialization has relatively large limitations. In the face of the gradual expansion of the scope of personal communication, more and more extensive social life experience must be enriched.
  4. People not only learn social culture, but also shoulder the responsibility of developing social culture. Adults are more able to actively select and internalize knowledge in the practice of life, and can create the future through learning.
  • Re-socialization: also known as re-socialization, it is the process of establishing a new knowledge structure, value standard and behavior model that meets the needs of society and the new situation from the previous knowledge structure, value standard and behavior model of the individual. It is a process in which a person changes and adapts from one way of life to another. ( Adult education is a common developmental socialization process )
  • Positive socialization and reverse socialization
  1. Positive socialization: refers to the process of cultural transmission and education from the previous generation to the next generation.
  2. Reverse socialization: It is a process in which the younger generation uses new knowledge and new concepts to influence the older generation, and this socialization becomes cultural feedback .
  • theories about socialization
  • Freud's psychoanalytic theory: based on the analysis of personality structure. It is believed that personality is composed of three parts: id, ego and superego.
  • Cooley and Mead's Theory of the Self: The self, as a social product, emerges in three stages. First, the way we behave in the presence of others; second, we perceive other people's judgments of our actions; third, we evaluate our actions based on understanding other people's reactions. Mead divides the self into two parts: the "host self" and the "guest self".
  • Kohlberg's stage theory of moral consciousness development : It is believed that children find their own moral values ​​as they grow older, and the moral standards accepted by children in all cultures around the world are basically the same, such as caring for others, equality reciprocity etc. Moral development is divided into three levels and six stages : ①Pre-routine level: the first stage is the obedience and punishment stage, and the second stage is the relative utilitarian stage; ②Routine level: the third stage is the good boy stage, and the fourth stage is the The stage of legal order; ③ Post-routine level: the fifth stage is the stage of social contract legitimacy, and the sixth stage is the stage of universal ethical principles.

Section 2 Conditions of Socialization

  • Biological factor: refers to a special genetic quality that is provided by the previous generation for the next generation and is conducive to human beings to engage in social activities.
  • 环境因素：是指影响个人社会化过程的全部社会环境。环境包括：地理环境、社会环境。
  • 家庭：社会化的第一要素。四方面的决定因素：
  1. 童年期是社会化的奠基时期
  2. 个人首先通过家庭获得社会地位
  3. 家庭成员状况深刻影响个体的行为模式
  4. 父母施教是最初的社会化途径
  • 学校：具有特殊价值的社会化环境因素
  • 伙伴群体：伙伴群体是一种特殊的群体，一般以年龄、性别、职业、志趣等为构成条件。
  • 工作单位：生活的大量时间是在工作单位度过，工作单位也是社会化的一个重要环境因素。
  1. 工作单位对个的作用主要表现在：
  1. 通过工作，建立以职业为纽带的基本社会关系
  2. 职业不同，人们的社会地位、生活过程和经济状况也不同，因而人的社会化状态呈现出职业特色
  3. 职业影响人们的社会威望和价值观念，因而人生的目标和社会化目标
  4. 人的工作过程是一种特殊的社会角色的调适过程，这一过程始终表现为以适应职业目标的角色学习过程。
  • 社区：是社会和文化的缩影，是个人生活的基本社会环境，影响着人的社会化的各个方面
  • 大众传媒：是现代社会具有重要意义的社会环境因素。
  • 互联网：是指一个由各种不同类型和规模的、独立运行和管理的计算机网络组成的全球性信息系统
  1. 互联网对青少年社会化的正面影响：
  1. 为青少年的教育提供了选择权
  2. 开阔了青少年的视野
  3. 有助于青少年更好的了解社会规范
  4. 为青少年提供了很好的与人沟通的互动环境
  • 社会实践: 是实现知识内化与积累，达到社会化目标的根本途径
  1. 观察学习：又称为模仿学习（直接模仿是个体及时地或者在特定环境下对榜样的复制行为，而反模仿是把榜样的行为当作教训）
  2. Role-playing: the concretization of personal practice, manifested in three situations, that is, playing a real role, playing a hypothetical role, and temporarily acting as a certain role
  3. Knowledge accumulation: the process of knowledge is the process of turning other people's knowledge into one's own knowledge and processing perceptual knowledge into rational knowledge

Section 3 Social Roles

  • The concept of social role: It is determined by a certain social status and conforms to certain social expectations . "Role" is a concept earlier used by American psychologist Mead in social psychology, and now it has become one of the basic concepts of society.
  1. The meaning of social role:
  1. Social role is the external expression of social status
  2. A social role is a set of behavioral norms and behavioral expectations

(3) Social roles are the reflection of various social attributes and social relations of people

(4) Social roles are the basis for forming social groups and social organizations

  • types of social roles
  • Pre-assigned roles and self-imposed roles: the difference in the way of acquiring roles .
  1. Inherited role: Refers to the social role established on the basis of innate physiological factors such as blood relationship and heredity.
  2. Self-acquired roles: Refers to social roles acquired through personal activities or efforts.
  • Prescriptive vs. Open Roles: Degrees of Role Normalization
  1. Prescriptive role: means that the rights and obligations of the role are strictly and clearly defined
  2. Open role: means that the rights and obligations of the role are not strictly and clearly defined
  • Utilitarian vs. Expressive Roles: What the Roles Pursue
  1. Utilitarian roles: Refers to those social roles whose goal is to pursue practical interests
  2. Expressive role: refers to a social role whose purpose is not to obtain economic benefits and rewards, but to express social system and order, social behavior norms, values, ideology and morality, etc.
  • Social role-playing: Stages of social role-playing: role expectation→role comprehension→role practice
  1. Role Expectations: Refers to society's expectations and requirements for the behavior patterns of a certain role.
  2. Role Comprehension: Refers to the role bearer's understanding of their role norms and role requirements.
  3. Role practice: the actual process or activity of role-taking, which is the development of role comprehension.
  • Misalignment of social roles:
  1. Role tension: Individuals are overwhelmed with time and energy in the actual process of role-playing, which is called role tension.
  2. Role conflict: conflicts between different role bearers are often caused by different role expectations, differences in role comprehension, people not acting according to role norms, etc.
  3. Unclear role: role conflicts caused by the general public or role players' unclear behavioral standards for a certain role
  4. Role interruption: A contradiction that occurs between two consecutive roles that a person assumes.
  5. Role failure: Role failure occurs when a role player is unable to successfully play his role for a variety of reasons.

Section 4 All-round development of people

  • basic goals of socialization
  1. Fundamentally speaking: it is to cultivate qualified members of society
  2. The basic goal of Chinese socialization is to cultivate new people who meet the needs of building socialism with Chinese characteristics
  3. The establishment of socialization goals has its basic basis:
  1. The goal of socialization is always related to a certain society in which people live
  2. The social characteristics of people are gradually realized through the ladder of different social groups
  3. The individual is not only the object of socialization, but also the subject of socialization, and is the unity of object and subject.
  4. Therefore, the determination of socialization goals must take into account the main factors, the level of personal ambition and the degree of understanding and recognition of social expectations, which have an important impact on the realization of socialization goals.
  • The Thought of Human's All-round Development
  1. The all-round development of man is the highest goal proposed by Marxism for the socialization of man .
  2. The all-round development of human beings means that everyone can get equal, complete development, harmonious development and free development
  • The process of realizing the all-round development of human beings:
  1. The all-round development of people: the all-round development of all attributes of people
  2. The high development of productive forces is the material basis for the all-round development of human beings, and the advanced social production relations are the basic conditions for the all-round development of human beings
  3. The all-round development of contemporary people, in a certain sense, is the realization of human modernization

Chapter 5 Social Interaction

Section 1 The Meaning and Form of Social Interaction

  • definition of social interaction
  • The concept of social interaction: it is the process of mutual influence between people through certain symbols and forms of communication.
  • Components of Social Interaction
  1. There must be two or more interacting subjects
  2. Some form of contact must occur between the interacting subjects
  3. All parties involved in the interaction consciously consider the "meaning" represented by the "symbol" of the action
  • Basic Forms of Social Interaction
  • hint:
  1. The concept of suggestion: People use language, facial expressions, body language and certain symbols to affect the psychology and behavior of others in an implicit and indirect way under non-confrontational conditions for a certain purpose, making them suggest conduct the activity in the manner indicated by the author. Three links: suggester, suggestive information, suggestee
  2. Types of suggestion: direct suggestion, indirect suggestion, autosuggestion, countersuggestion
  • imitate:
  1. 模仿的概念：是在没有外在压力条件下，个体受他人影响，而仿照他人，使自己与之在某些方面相同或相似的现象。
  2. 模仿的特点：
  1. 模仿的社会刺激是非控制性的，榜样是模仿的条件，但模仿是自愿产生的，有时可能是无意识的
  2. 相似性模仿者的举止近似于其所模仿的榜样
  1. 模仿的意义
  1. 模仿是学习的基础
  2. 适应作用，模仿可以让个体较为方便地适应他所面临的各种情景
  3. 增进群体的凝聚力
  • 交换：
  1. 交换的概念：是在一定的规则下，行为者为了获得回报而行动并获得回报的社会互动形式。
  2. 交换构成要素：目标、付出、回报、效益
  3. 交换的类型：物质的交换、非物质的交换
  4. 交换存在的社会基础：交换主要是由社会差异引起的。
  • 竞争: 
  1. 竞争的概念：是指行动者之间为了共同的目标而展开的争夺，它是社会互动的一种普遍形式。
  2. 竞争的类型：
  1. 从社会互动的主体分：个人和个人的竞争、个人和群体之间的竞争、群体和群体之间的竞争
  2. 从社会互动的内容的目标来看：（宏观分类）经济竞争、政治竞争 、科技竞争；（微观分类）地位竞争、声望竞争、恋人竞争
  • 合作: 
  1. 合作的概念：是指在社会互动中，行为者之间为了共同的目标，彼此密切配合的一种联合行动。作为社会互动的最普遍形式，同时也是个人赖以生存和社会赖以维系的最基本的前提是合作。
  2. 合作的类型：自发性合作、制度化的传统合作、指导性合作、契约式合作
  1. 自发性合作：这是一种最古老和最具普遍意义的合作形式。指某种情境下人们自觉自愿地聚集帮助他人解决实际困难和需要的行为。如左邻右舍帮助救人。
  2. 制度化的传统合作：当自发性合作逐步发展为稳定的社会习惯，而成为一种制度化的合作以后，如一起收获庄稼等。
  3. 指导性合作：现大社会比较多见的合作形式。指双方在具有权威地位的第三方的指导下一起完成某项工作，如经理指导工作；在老师指导下的大学生的社会研究。
  4. 契约式合作：指个人或群体之间达成协议，以契约或类似契约的方式进行合作。如金钱借贷等。
  • 冲突：
  1. The concept of conflict: refers to the conscious actions of different actors to mutually prevent each other's intentions. The source of the conflict is the scarcity of certain social resources.
  2. Type of coverall:
  1. Scale of Conflict: Conflict Between Groups and Conflict Between Individuals
  2. The nature of the division of conflicts: economic conflicts, political conflicts, cultural conflicts, ethnic conflicts, class conflicts
  3. Types or degrees of conflicts: explicit conflicts (arguments, fist fights, weapon fights, hatred fights, wars, lawsuits, etc.) , implicit conflicts
  • Adjustment: 
  1. The concept of adjustment: It is the process of adjusting one's behavior to meet the requirements of the environment and adapting to conflict situations.
  2. Causes of adjustment:  (1) adjustment caused by conflict; (2) adjustment caused by social development or change; (3) adjustment caused by cultural exchange or migration
  3. Various types of adjustments:
  1. Adjustments arising from conflict: reconciliation, compromise, domination, and submission
  2. Adaptation resulting from environmental change: tolerance, contingency, sudden shift, compliance

Section 2 Symbols of Social Interaction

  • language
  • Concepts of signs and language
  1. Symbol: A symbol recognized by a group of people as a meaningful representation of something other than itself
  2. Language: Refers to the unique tools used by human beings to express meaning and communicate ideas, and is a system composed of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
  • The importance of language: Language is the most important symbol system in social interaction and a tool for cultural exchange, cultural transmission and cultural inheritance. Language gives meaning to the world.
  • language diversity
  • body language
  • The concept of body language: it is an action or way of expressing meaning with the body instead of language.
  • Types of body language: facial expressions and gestures and postures.
  • personal space
  • The concept of personal space: the immediate physical area surrounding a person that one can use to express meaning in motion
  • Personal Space Theory: Anthropologist Edward T. Hall proposes:
  1. Intimacy distance: 18 inches, within about 45 centimeters; within this distance, one party can feel the breath of the other party, and can see the other party's body in detail, which is the distance between intimate people to show acceptance and protection.
  2. Personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet, 45-122 cm: This space is reserved for acquaintances and friends.
  3. Social distance: 4 feet to 12 feet, 122-365 cm: It is a more formal occasion distance, such as some social occasions such as meetings.
  4. 公众距离：12英尺以上，365厘米以上。这是为一些类似演说家等公众人物保留的距离

第三节 社会互动的理论

  • 符号互动论：又称符号互动主义或象征相互作论，指从互动个体的日常自然环境去研究人类群体生活的理论派别。美国社会学家库利、托马斯、米德等人是符号互动论的早期代表。
  • 拟剧论：指用表演和比喻来说明日常生活中人与人之间相互作用的一种互动的理论。代表人物：戈夫曼《日常生活中的自我表演》，戈夫曼在书中运用了“剧本 、观众、表演者、角色、前台、后台、面具、道具”等戏剧的用语，说明了人们在日常生活中如何进行社会互动的过程。按照戈夫曼的观点，社会互动的最重要特征就是“印象管理”或“自我呈现”
  • 常人方法学：常人方法学这个词是加芬克在1954年发明的，即普通人日常互动所运用的方法。对人们在日常生活互动中所使用方法的研究，其思想来源主要是舒茨的现象学社会学。基本假设是，在现实生活中社会成员依据一定的规则和程序来进行社会互动，这些日常生活中不成文的，大家公认的互动规则是一切社会生活的基础。

第四节 社会网络与社会资本

  • 社会网络的涵义：是指个人之间的关系网络；渊源于美国心理学家米尔格的六度分隔理论和欧农民自发组织的“赫德兄弟会”活动团体规模150法则
  • 社会网络的特征：1、普遍性；2、多重性；3、滚珠性；4、多向性；5、隐蔽性
  • 社会网络的形态与功能：
  • 社会网络的形态：
  1. 封闭形态和开放形态：以个人进出该社会网络的难易程度的不同来区分。
  2. 稳固形态和松散形态：以个人和社会网络的连接的同来区分
  3. 互利形态和互补形态：以个人在社会网络中获得的利益来区分
  • 社会网络的功能：获得各种信息、获得各种精神上的支持以及物质上的资源。
  • 强关系与弱关系
  1. 强关系网络：是个人的社会网络同质性较强，人与人的关系紧密，有很强的情感因素维系着人际关系
  2. 弱关系网络：是个人的社会网络异质性较强，人与人关系并不紧密，也没有太多的感情维系
  • 社会资本
  • 社会资本的涵义与研究
  1. 社会资本的概念: 指通过社会联系与社会关系所获取的资源。
  2. 社会资本的研究：1980年，法国社会学家皮埃尔・布迪厄在《社会科学研究》杂志上发表了《社会资本》短文，正式提出了“社会资本”概念
  • 社会资本的分类
  1. 以布朗为代表分：微观层次的社会资本、中观层次的社会资本、宏观层次的社会资本
  2. 根据社会资本的性质分：同质性社会资本和异质性社会资本
  3. 罗伯特•科利尔把社会资本分为：政府社会资本和民间社会资本。①政府社会资本是影响人们为了相互利益而进行合作的能力的各种政府制度，这些制度包括契约实施效率、法律规则，国家允许的公民自由度。②民间社会资本同的价值观、规范、非正式网络、社会成员，这些能够影响个人为实现共同目标进行合作的能力的制度因素。

第六章 家庭与婚姻

第一节 什么是家庭与婚姻

  • 什么是家庭
  • 家庭的概念：是由具有婚姻、血缘或收养关系的人组成的长期共同生活的群体，是人类生活中最基本、最重要的一种群体形式。家庭的基本关系：婚姻关系、血缘关系、收养关系
  • 家庭的特征：（社会学家威廉・古德 在《家庭》一书中的概括：
  1. 至少有两个不同性别的成年人居住在一起
  2. 他们之间存在着某种劳动分工，即他们并不都干同样的事
  3. 他们进行许多经济交换和社会交换，即他们相互为对方办事
  4. 他们分享许多事物，如吃饭、性生活、居住
  5. 成年人与其子女之间有着亲子关系，父母对孩子拥有某种权威，又对孩子有义务
  6. 孩子之间存在着兄弟姐妹关系，相互保护、相互帮助
  • 什么是婚姻：是家庭建立的基础，家庭一般是从婚姻开始的。婚姻通常是男女之间依照社会风俗或法律的规定而结为夫妻关系的一种社会制度。婚姻和家庭一样有它自身的自然属性，婚姻又是一种社会行为。
  • 家庭与婚姻的理论解释
  • 结构-功能主义分析
  1. 功能主义者强调家庭的功能-社会化、情感支持和相互陪伴、性规则及经济合作等，对整个社会的福祉及平稳运行非常重要。①社会化；②情感和陪伴；③性规则；④经济合作；
  2. Structural-functional analysis emphasizes the connection between family and society as a whole, but it realizes the diversity of social families, and also ignores some negative aspects of family life, such as patriarchy, domestic violence, and gender inequality.
  • Theoretical Analysis of Social Conflict

Social conflict theory sees the family as the center of our lives. Conflict theory emphasizes, however, that the sexes in the family compete with each other in different ways, and in the process some family members benefit more from the family than others.

Section 2 Functions and Types of Families

  • family function
  1. normative behavioral function
  2. economic life function
  3. population reproduction function
  4. spiritual life function
  5. educational function
  6. Nurturing and support functions
  • Family structure type: (Symbol identification: △ means male, ○ means female, = means marriage relationship)
  • Nuclear family: A family consisting of a couple and their unmarried children living together. (Family of Three) The nuclear family is the most stable form of all family forms. 
  • Stem family: refers to a family where a couple lives together with their parents and unmarried children. (Family of five)
  • Joint family: Refers to a family consisting of parents, multiple pairs of married children and grandchildren.
  • Other Families: Some Incomplete Families
  1. Incomplete family: a family in which one of the husband and wife lives with unmarried children due to divorce or widowhood;
  2. Generational family: a family consisting of only one generation of unmarried teenagers and grandparents ;
  3. Single family: that is, old-age households who are lonely and those men or women who do not marry or do not marry all their lives and live alone.
  • special type of family
  • reorganized family
  • "Lost only child" family: Refers to the family who lost their only child.
  • Homosexual family: Refers to the family where homosexuals choose same-sex marriage due to marriage pressure.
  • DINK family: Refers to "childless families", people who have the ability to have children but choose not to have children. In addition to actively not having children, they may also passively choose not to have children due to subjective or objective reasons.
  • Left-behind families: refer to "semi-migrant" families in which one of the husband and wife works outside the home and the other stays behind, and "double-flow" families in which both husband and wife work outside the home.

Section 3 Family and Marriage in Change

  • changes in family

On the whole, the family pattern presents a pattern in which the nuclear family is the main family, the backbone family is the second, and the single-person family is the supplement. The proportion of nuclear families of couples in urban areas has increased, and the growth of nuclear families of elderly couples has increased nationwide. The main manifestations are: family size miniaturization, family divorce rate rising, and family types diversification.

  • family size downsizing
  • Rising Divorce Rate in Families: (Reason for Rising Divorce Rate)
  1. The consideration of economic factors is relatively reduced
  2. The relaxation of public opinion pressure has led to an increase in the number of divorced people and the existence of a large number of
  3. Simplification of divorce procedures
  4. The husband or wife pays more attention to the quality of marital life and personal feelings, and cannot recognize and accept tolerance and depression
  5. Demands to improve marital life or consider divorce are increasingly initiated by the wife
  6. Among the divorced people, the age of marriage is getting younger, and the number of "ephemeral marriages" that divorce at a younger age and divorce after a short marriage has increased significantly. With the popularization of the Internet, the destructive effect of online dating on marriage by one spouse continues to appear.
  • Variety of family types
  • Changes in family function
  1. Weakening of economic function
  2. Functional shift of parenting and socialization
  3. The family's reproductive preferences began to change: In traditional Chinese families, childbearing is the most important function of the family, and family succession is a major event in the family .
  4. The Challenge of the Elderly Care Function
  • Changes in Family and Marriage Concepts
  • diversity of sexuality
  • Equalization
  • Behavioral rationalization

Chapter 7 Groups and Organizations

Section 1 What is a group

  • The Meaning and Characteristics of Groups
  • Group concept: It is a group of people connected by certain social relations for common activities and emotional exchanges. A clear definition of a group was made in the early 20th century. In the United States, Albion W. Small put forward that in 1905, he defined a group as "a large group or a small group of people, during which the relationship between We have to think about them as a whole . "
  • Characteristics of the group:
  1. There are a certain number of social members: there are at least two members of a group, which is the main basis for forming a group . Among the maharajas, there is still a certain division of labor and cooperation, and there is a "natural leader".
  2. There are certain goals accepted by group members: group goals are the concrete manifestation of group functions and the soul of the organization .
  3. Have clear membership relationships and develop a sense of belonging
  4. have a certain code of conduct
  5. persistent in time
  • type of group
  • Primary group and secondary group: It is a group classification based on the characteristics of the interaction relationship of members, which is one of the most classic classifications in sociological group research. The criterion for distinguishing primary groups from secondary groups is the characteristics of the interactive relationship among members. Such as family, neighbourhood, playmates, etc.
  1. The primary group, also known as the primary group, is the oldest and most basic form of social groups and the basic group for individuals to participate in social life . Types of primary groups: family, neighborhood, partner group. The concept of primary group was put forward by the American sociologist Cooley Condition in the early 20th century . He believed that individuals always form the initial social relationship from some direct, small and intimate communication process, and these primary social relationship The united group is the primary group. The primary group is small in size, face-to-face communication, strong sense of identity and other characteristics.
  2. Secondary groups, also known as secondary groups, are used to represent various groups corresponding to primary groups. Secondary groups are not only groups that individuals must join in entering society, but also a sign of the expansion of personal social activities and the enhancement of activity capabilities. . Such as schools, professional groups, associations, etc.
  • Formal group and informal group: A group classification based on the group's relationship structure and organizational function.
  1. An informal group is a spontaneously formed group with a meta-formal organizational structure and no formal charter
  2. The concept of formal group and informal group was proposed by American scholar Mayo in the Hawthorne experiment.
  • Ingroup and Outgroup: A group classification based on the psychological belonging of members to the group. It was first proposed by Sumner's "Ethics on Folklore".
  1. In-group: Also known as "my group" members feel that they are closely related to the group, and those who have a strong sense of belonging are the in-group.
  2. Outgroup: Also known as "other group", a group that is formed by other people and has nothing to do with oneself belongs to the outgroup.
  • Membership group and reference group: A classification of groups based on the affiliation of group members
  1. Member group: that is, the in-group. Individuals are members of the group and use the norms of the group as the criterion for their own activities. The members interact with each other in behavior.
  2. Reference group: A group that members of a group use as a point of reference and try to emulate . The concept was proposed by the American sociologist Heyman.
  • Large group and small group: A group classification based on the size of the group.
  1. Refers to a group with a large scale, a large number of people, and less direct interaction between people.
  2. Refers to a small group whose members can interact directly with each other.
  • primary group
  • Meaning and Characteristics of Primary Groups:
  1. 初级群体作为由面对面的互动所形成的，具有人际关系的社会群体，在社会生活中具有重要的地位和作用。个人参加社会生活的基础群体是初级群体。初级群体最先是由库利提出。
  2. 特征：
  1. 规模小
  2. 有长期的、经常的面对面互动
  3. 成员的人格特征可以得到比较全面的表现
  4. 成员之间的角色位置难以替代
  5. 习惯、伦理道德和感情在维系群体中发挥着重要作用
  • 初级群体的类型：1、家庭；2、邻里；3、伙伴群体。

第二节 组织和组织理论

  • 组织的概念：是人们为了达到特定目标而建立起来的具有比较严密的结构制度化的群体。
  • 组织过程：
  • 组织决策：组织决策是指组织成员从两个以上的行动方案中进行选择决断，以期最优化地达到组织目标的过程。组织决策不单是组织上层的任务，而是贯穿整个组织运行的全过程。
  1. 组织决策过程可分为四个阶段：
  1. 情报阶段：即调查环境，了解各种总重所需要的资料。
  2. 设计阶段：即制订各种可能采取的行动方案
  3. 抉择阶段：即从各种可能方案中选出一个行动方案
  4. 审查阶段：即对已选择的行动方案进行评估
  • 组织沟通：是指组织内部的信息交流，即组织成员之间通过各种形式的交往以传达思想、观点、态度、感情或情报的过程。
  1. 组织沟通形式：
  1. 从沟通信息的方向上看，分为：纵向沟通、横向沟通
  2. 从沟通的性质上看，分为：正式沟通、非正式沟通
  • 组织控制：指组织用各种规章制度和奖惩手段约束组织成员的行为，以保证组织的决策和指令能够有效地贯彻执行，维护组织的各项秩序。
  1. 三个过程：
  1. 预先控制：指在组织行为发生之前所进行的一系列控制活动
  2. 现场控制：又称同步控制，是对正在实际进行操作的组织成员的行为进行指导和监控，使组织成员的行为始终朝向组织的目标
  3. 反馈控制：针对组织的成员活动结果来进行控制。组织经常对其工作人员和管理人员进行成绩考评和总结并作出物质上或精神上的奖惩，就是一种反馈控制。
  4. The three organizational processes of decision-making, communication and control are not separated from each other, but are interrelated and intertwined in the actual actual organizational operation process.
  • bureaucratic theory of organization
  • Legitimacy Rule Type:
  1. Bureaucracy (also known as bureaucracy) was proposed by Max Weber.
  2. Weber summarized the legitimate rule that has appeared in history into three types:
  1. Charismatic type: also known as charismatic type. It is based on heroes.
  2. Traditional: The most typical forms are patriarchal, hereditary and feudal.
  3. Legal type: The typical form is bureaucracy.
  • The characteristics of bureaucracy: It refers to the organizational form and management method based on legal authority, with formal rules as the main body of management, and with division of powers and position hierarchy. feature:
  1. Clearly defined fixed permissions
  2. clearly defined job levels
  3. Execution of duties is based on official documents
  4. Specialization of positions and recruitment based on merit
  5. Follow the rules
  • Advantages and disadvantages of bureaucratic organization
  1. Advantages: The biggest advantage of the bureaucracy is that compared with other organizational systems and management methods, the administrative management efficiency is high .
  2. shortcoming:
  1. formalism
  2. red tape
  3. Employment dilemma
  4. Lack of human touch
  5. Insensitive to external changes
  • Organizational Management Theory
  • Scientific management theory: In order for an organization to achieve its goals more effectively, the structure and processes of the organization must be scientific and rationalized. Representatives: American engineer Taylor and French management scientist Fayol;
  • Interpersonal relationship theory: People are the most important factor in an organization. People are not simple production tools, but have complex personalities and multi-faceted needs . Representatives: Harvard University professors Mayo and Roy Risberg (Hawthorne experiment), the basic viewpoints of interpersonal relationship theory:
  1. People are the most important factor in an organization. People are not simple production tools, but have complex personalities and various needs;
  2. The reasons that affect the enthusiasm of employees are not mainly physical factors and physiological factors, but mainly social factors, psychological factors and interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationship theory opposes Taylor and other scientific management theorists who regard people as "talking machines". ", or people's activities are only driven by money, and people are considered to be "social people" . This theory was gradually formed by the famous Huo under the guidance of professors Mayo and Royce Riesberg of Harvard University.
  3. Interpersonal relationship theory has brought breakthrough enlightenment to update people's understanding of organizational management:
  • The theory of interpersonal relationship requires organizational management to pay attention to the influence of non-economic factors, and believes that production efficiency depends on social norms rather than physiological capabilities;
  • Interpersonal relationship theory emphasizes the role of group identity of organizational members on organizational management, and believes that organizational members usually participate in organizational activities not as individuals but as informal groups
  • Interpersonal relationship theory requires organizations to manage interpersonal communication, and believes that interpersonal communication between organizational leaders and organizational members, including formal and informal communication, will affect the efficiency of organizational actions and the enthusiasm of organizational members.
  • Organizational Behavior Theory: Organizational management theory developed from interpersonal relationship theory. Representative: Barnard proposed: Organizational Balance Theory, which believes that the existence of an organization depends on the balance maintained between the contribution and satisfaction of its members. McGregor put forward the "X" and "Y" theories, and differentiated and analyzed the theoretical assumptions behind different management models. (X refers to an autocratic management theory; Y theory refers to a humanitarian and helpful management theory)
  • Contingency theory: also known as situation theory, it is believed that organizational management is not only related to the organization itself, but also involves the relationship between the organization and the environment. ways and actions. Representatives : American psychologists John Moores and Jay Rosch (super " Y " theory)

The basic point of view of super "Y" theory:

  1. people come to work organizations with different needs and motivations
  2. Different people have different requirements for organizational management
  3. Factors such as organizational goals, nature of work, and employee quality have a great impact on the efficiency of organizational structure and leadership styles

Section 3 Collective Behavior

  • What is collective behavior:
  1. Concept: Refers to the non-institutionalized behavior that is largely formed spontaneously and participated by many individuals in the absence of definite organizational procedures and institutional norms.
  2. Characteristics of collective behavior :
  1. Mass nature : Collective action always appears as the joint action of a considerable number of people;
  2. Spontaneity : group behavior that is not prearranged in routine life
  3. Unorganized : Collective behavior examines those group behaviors ranging from completely unorganized to those with a relatively low degree of organization.
  4. Deinstitutionalization : Always formed outside the system.
  • Traditional Explanations of Collective Behavior
  • Le Pen's mob theory: Once many individuals form a group, they will have a unique collective psychology. This collective psychology will cause individuals to involuntarily lose the ability to think rationally through mutual emotional infection, and their behavior It will be very different from when you are alone, and your mind will become simple. It will be very easy for people to accept the opinions, ideas and beliefs provided by the group without doubt, and blindly imitate the behavior and attitudes of others in the group.
  • Smelser's value accumulation theory (6 factors): It is believed that collective behavior cannot be explained purely from a psychological point of view, but the formation of collective behavior should be linked to social structure. Only under the combined influence of the following six factors will collective behavior be induced:
  1. structural contributors
  2. structural tension
  3. generalized belief
  4. Precipitating factors
  5. mobilization
  6. social control
  • Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action
  • Olson's free-rider theory: The hypothesis is that if individuals are more rational and the group size is larger, then the group is less likely to behave collectively. In his book, Olsen proposed a way to solve the free-rider dilemma: since the goal pursued by collective action is public goods, public goods can only provide a collective incentive for individuals; If it is not enough to make a changing person fight for a public good, then a selective incentive is needed. The so-called selective incentive refers to giving corresponding benefits to group members who put in more efforts in collective actions, thereby attracting individuals to make greater efforts in collective actions.
  • The resource mobilization theory of social movements:

The resources needed for social movement include: time resources, scale of participants, money and material resources, external support, and conceptual resources

Chapter VIII Education, Labor and Consumption

Section 1 Education

  • Concepts and Types of Education
  • The connotation of education: education in a broad sense refers to all social practice activities that spread and learn the achievements of human civilization—knowledge, skill and experience, so as to promote individual socialization and social individualization; education in a narrow sense refers to school education, that is, institutionalized education .
  • Type of education:
  1. From the places where education takes place: family education, school education, social education
  1. 家庭教育的主要目的：①促进儿童身心健康发展，为接受学校教育作准备；②配合学校教育，使儿童在德、智、体等方面正常发展。
  1. 从个体对教育的需求分：生存教育、地位教育
  1. 生存教育：指一个人为适应当下社会的基本生存而必须接受的教育。
  2. 地位教育：指一切超出基本生存所必需的教育之外的出于维护社会地位需求的教育类型。（特点：）
            • 地位教育与一个时代的现实生存条件没有必然的联系，接受某种教育是出于表现地位角色的需要。
            • 地位教育是获得上层社会地位的直接手段之一
            • 地位教育具有较为强烈的排他性，对某一个阶层是一种权利，而对别一个阶层却是遥不可得的
            • 地位教育是一种不平等的教育。
  • 现代学校教育的社会功能
  • 杜威等学者的观点
  1. 美国-约翰・杜威：教育的首要功能是社会化。他提出“教育即生活”“教育即改造”“学校即社会”和“儿童中心论”等观点中。
  2. 美国-罗伯特・默顿：大量社会现象都可能同时存在着显功能与潜功能。显功能，即系统参与方有意客观后果，其潜功能即系统参与方无意图的，未认识到的后果。
  • 现代学校教育的显功能
  1. 社会化的功能
  2. 社会选拔的功能
  3. 提高人口素质的功能：舒尔茨提出人力资本理论，认为人力资本是当今时代促进国民经济增长的主要原因。
  4. 知识技术创新的功能
  • 现代学校教育的潜功能
  1. 建立未来人际关系
  2. 减少就业压力
  3. 社会控制的功能
  • 教育的社会学分析视角
  • 功能论视角下的教育：由社会学家涂尔干提出，强调要寻找一个社会事实的功能，应该看它与某种社会目标的关系。帕森斯继承了此学说，他认为人的社会化是社会稳定运行的前提条件和基础，而社会化的过程包含在分配和整合之中，即社会化使得不同的人获得不同的技能以适应分工需要（分配），同时社会化还能让人们欣然接受分配必然带来的社会不平等（整合）。但此学说也有问题：①遵循这一思路的教育研究无法处理社会变迁的问题。②教育的功能分析建立了一种宏大的理论模型，它关注了社会大系统之间的关系，却忽略了系统内部行动者之间的关系与互动，包括行动的主观意图和动机、行动的方式以及社会情景与结果等诸多微观方面问题。
  • 冲突论视角下的教育：社会秩序不是建立在对共同价值的一致认可上，而是建立在统治阶级的控制权力上。
  • 互动论视角下的教育：被称为“人本主义”和微观取向，它将视角引入到具体的教育中，引入到人与人的互动关系中。
  • 教育和社会不平等
  • 教育不平等现象
  1. 体现在教育资源分配的不平等；
  2. 教育没有带来大规模的向上社会流动；
  3. 受教育的机会在很长一段时间内都被精英阶层控制着。
  • 教育不平等的社会学分析
  1. 对制度化教育的批判：伊凡・伊利奇（制度化教育的批判：）
  1. 学校正在为各种受压抑、互相隔阂和失去人性的社会服务，其实质是维护现存秩序的社会工具
  2. 在学校中，学习和教育都是强迫性的，它要求达到一定年龄的儿童在教师的监管下整天学习强制性的课程，是“没有快乐的机构”
  3. 除常规的至少传授之外，学校还传授一些“隐形的课程”，即一种价值观的宣讲——只有通过学校教育才能为每个人成长为社会人做准备，学校中不传授的东西几乎没有什么价值，校外学到的东西是无价值的
  4. 只有发动一场“去学校化”的变革，使教与学重新具有个人责任感，才能回归学习与教育本来的意义
  1. Education and cultural capital: receiving the same education, but Deng De's learning (academic) achievements may vary from person to person. French sociologist Bourdieu refuted it from the perspective of the reproduction of cultural capital: ①Different social classes have different ways of thinking, expression habits and cultural capital ②The speaking styles and tastes shown by children of lower classes are often different from those expressed The school environment with the mainstream values ​​of the society is incompatible, so in the process of learning, they show more adaptability difficulties and lack the motivation for self-improvement. ③The cultural capital and thinking habits of middle-class children are more coordinated with school requirements, so they are more adaptable to school life and more likely to achieve academic success.
  2. The "subculture" of working-class children:
  1. Children of the working class do not necessarily have lower career expectations and self-awareness, that is, they are willing to become the lower class of society
  2. They usually have good practical survivability in their own field of life
  3. The boy group (dude) made up of working kids has its own subculture
  4. In the process of employment after graduation, labor children do not agree with the mainstream social values ​​of the school, but appreciate blue-collar culture and choose it as their job-seeking intention
  5. When they become adults, they may realize the significance of education for social class mobility, and begin to teach the next generation to accept mainstream educational concepts

Section 2 Labor

  • Concepts and Types of Labor
  • What is labor: It is purposeful and conscious transformation, adjustment and control of activities in nature, including mental activities and physical labor. (the meaning of labor)
  1. Marx believed that labor is the most basic practical activity of human beings and the basic condition for human production and development
  2. labor makes economic sense
  3. labor has social meaning
  4. Labor Has Cultural Significance: Labor Is an Important Way of Personal Identity
  • type of labor
  1. According to whether there is labor remuneration, it is divided into: paid labor, unpaid labor
  2. According to whether it consumes physical energy or mental energy: physical labor, mental labor
  3. According to the dual nature of labor, it is divided into: concrete labor and abstract labor
  • Labor Process in the Industrial Age
  • Fordism: The term originated from Antonio Gramsci , which refers to the production labor mode based on the division of labor and specialization, which is guided by Taylorism principles and the market. (feature:)
  1. The assembly line operation and its corresponding work organization formed by production mechanization, automation and standardization have greatly improved the labor productivity of standardized products through large-scale production;
  2. The struggle between labor and capital has changed from the struggle of labor and capital over the control of the work process to the struggle of guaranteeing employment rights and wage determination, and finally formed a new form of labor-capital relations centered on the collective bargaining system of labor and capital;
  3. The production process combining specialized machine investment and low-skilled workers increases the organic composition of capital, reduces the impact of high organic composition of capital on the rate of profit by accelerating capital consortiums, and promotes the process of vertical integration among firms, thereby forming market structure of monopolistic competition.
  • Post-Fordism: Refers to the new capitalist accumulation mode and the production and labor mode of social economic structure centered on non-mass production methods such as lean production and flexible specialization. (feature:)
  1. Flexible, specialized production replaces mass production of standardized consumer goods;
  2. Reduction of all forms of indirect labor that do not add to the final value of the product, including supervisory activities, quality control, maintenance work and cleaning work, etc.;
  3. As information processing resources are more and more controlled in the front-line work area of ​​the enterprise, the autonomy of the work team increases, and the internal coordination information of the enterprise has undergone a transformation from centralized processing to decentralized processing.
  4. The relationship between labor and capital has changed from an adversarial competitive relationship under Fordism to a relationship of mutual cooperation and trust to a certain extent.
  • Critique of Labor Process in Contemporary Capitalism
  1. Braverman's theory of oppressive mechanisms: hints at the mechanism by which capitalists in the labor process during monopoly capitalism completely deprive workers of control over labor.
  2. Burawoy's production regime theory: It suggests that the political effect of the capitalist labor process and the political normative tools of production together constitute a unique production regime of the factory.
  • employment
  • The main factors affecting the success of job hunting: 1. Human capital (in a statistical sense, the higher a person's education level, the stronger his competitiveness in the labor market); 2. Social network; 3. Social system; 4 , social prejudice
  • Unemployment: Refers to the status of reaching the working age and having the ability to seek work but not getting employment opportunities. Unemployment rate: refers to the ratio of the unemployed population to the working population, which is a key indicator to accurately describe the employment situation. type:
  1. Frictional Unemployment: Loss of a job lost by people as they switch jobs
  2. Structural unemployment: Unemployment caused by the disappearance of original job opportunities due to changes in industrial structure or production technology
  3. Cyclic Unemployment: Unemployment due to fluctuations in the business cycle
  4. Seasonal Unemployment: Unemployment affected by seasonal factors
  5. Residual unemployment: Unemployment due to incapacity
  • 劳动力市场分割：在现实中，从来没有真正产生新古典经济学所说的完整、统一、自由的劳动力市场。劳动力市场往往呈现出一种分割状态，常见的一种是分为主要劳动力市场和次要劳动力市场。主要劳动力市场工作稳定、高收入、高福利、职业发展前景好，教育回报率高，次要劳动力市场工作不稳定，收入低、几乎没有福利待遇、流动性大、职业发展前景黯淡、教育回报率低。中国的劳动力市场分为城市和农村，农民工工资福利待遇低于城市职工。

第三节 消费

  • 消费的概念与特征
  • 什么是消费：是为满足生产和生活需要而消耗物质和文化财富的活动，消费不仅仅是人倒头就睡生活中的生活消费，还包括属于生产本向的生产消费。消费是社会再生产过程的一个环节，是人们生存和恢复劳动力必不可少的条件。社会学家格兰诺维特认为消费行为不单纯是一个个体的、纯理性的经济行为，而是一种嵌入各种文化和社会关系的社会行为。（恩格尔系数是衡量家庭消费结构的重要指标）
  • 消费的特征：
  1. 消费的经济属性；
  2. 消费的心理属性：消费者的心理特征包括消费者兴趣、消费习惯、价值观、性格、气质等方面。
  3. 消费的社会属性；
  4. 消费的文化属性：
  • 消费社会
  • 什么是消费社会：一个以生活必需品之外的消费为主的社会
  • 消费社会的特征：
  1. 消费成为社会的核心
  2. 消费水平和消费规模的不断扩张
  3. 消费主义盛行
  • 消费的社会学理论
  • 韦伯的生活风格理论：消费方式使潜在的阶级差别显性化，形成生活方式不同的地位群体；
  • 凡勃论的炫耀性消费理论《有闲阶级》：是富裕的上层阶级通过对物品的超出实用和生存所必需的浪费性、奢侈性和铺张浪费，向他人炫耀和展示自己的金钱财力和社会地位，以及这种地位所带来的荣耀、声望和名誉。
  • 鲍德里亚的消费社会论：凡是不能成为消费对象的东西，都不具有存在的价值

第九章 社区与社区发展

  • 什么是社区
  • 社区的概念和功能
  • Definition of community: It is a community of social life based on a certain region. The concept of community was first put forward by the German sociologist Tohnis in his book "Community and Society" in 1887 ( it is generally believed that sociologists' typological research on communities began with Tohnis ); a community is a society based on a certain region The connotation of a living community includes three aspects that are interconnected:
  1. A community is a certain geographic area where people live together
  2. A community is a network of social relationships formed based on social interactions in which people live together
  3. Community is a symbol of collective identity. Because people live together, they have a certain degree of psychological identification with the area where the community is located, and regard themselves as a member of the community.
  • Features of the community:
  1. Economic life function (primary)  : the community has a system of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, and provides its members with basic necessities and services such as clothing, food, housing and transportation through production or import to meet the needs of community members , which is the primary function of the community.
  2. Socialization function: the community has a series of organizations and facilities, which pass on the community’s common values, behavioral norms, and basic common sense to members of the next generation of the community, or educate new immigrants so that they can integrate into community life. Such as family, neighborhood, school, church.
  3. Social control function: Any community will impose some form of sanctions on the behavior of its community members who deviate from social norms, so as to urge people to abide by social norms and maintain the social order of the community.
  4. Social participation function: the community can provide members with places, facilities and ways to live and communicate, and help community members participate in community affairs and wider social affairs. This is the social participation function of the community .
  5. The function of social security: a set of social security system can be provided to help community members who encounter problems and need help in the community.
  • The typological theory of community: It is generally believed that sociologists’ research on community began with the type research of German sociologist Toennes. In his book "Community and Society", he analyzed the two opposing concepts of "community" and "society". Type of social connection.
  • Humanistic Location Theory: It is an important theoretical development of community studies in the 20th century, which gathers a batch of research results on modern urban communities represented by the Chicago School.
  • Concentric circle theory: Burgess divides the city into five concentric circles, the first ring is the central business district, the second ring is the transition area, the third ring is the worker’s residential area, the fourth ring is the higher-end residential area, and the fourth ring is the high-end residential area. The Fifth Ring Road is a high-end residential area.
  • Sector theory: proposed by Hoyt on the basis of his criticism of Burgess' theory of concentric circles.
  • Multicore Theory: Proposed by Harris and Ullman .
  • Theoretical development after humanistic Put forward the "Humanistic Location Cluster Model", using the four elements of population, organization, environment and technology and their interrelationships to explain the location theory of the spatial layout of the city.
  • Community panorama research: The American scholars Linde and his wife created a panorama research with small towns as the object in community research, which is to describe the different parts of the community and explain the relationship between these different parts.
  • Community Studies in China: Chinese scholars' own community studies began during the rural construction movement in the late 1920s. The more famous ones are the Qinghe survey conducted by Yang Kaidao and Xu Shilian from the Department of Sociology of Yenching University, and the Dingxian survey conducted by sociologists Li Jinghan and Yan Yangchu .
  • community type
  • rural community
  • The concept of rural community: also known as rural community, refers to a highly homogeneous regional living community composed of people whose main means of livelihood is agricultural production. Rural community is the most basic form of community in human society, and it is the product of the development of human society to a certain historical stage.
  • Features of Rural Communities:
  1. Low population density in rural communities
  2. Relatively simple economic activities in rural communities
  3. The social structure of rural communities is relatively simple
  4. Social change in traditional rural communities is relatively slow
  • urban community
  • The concept of urban community: also known as urban community, refers to a regional living community with a certain size of population and a relatively high degree of heterogeneity that engages in various non-agricultural production as a means of livelihood. This definition is a comprehensive definition, including three aspects that people usually use to judge: population size, economic perspective, that is, the proportion of non-agricultural population in the community, and the degree of social heterogeneity .
  • The origin and development of the city: the urban community is the product of the development of social productivity to a certain stage, and the development of the city can be divided into two stages:
  1. The 17th and 18th centuries from the emergence of cities to the beginning of the industrial revolution are generally called ancient cities or pre-industrial society cities;
  2. Since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century until today, it is generally called a modern city or an industrial society city.
  • Features of modern urban community lifestyle:
  1. The social division of labor in urban communities is complex, residents are engaged in more specialized jobs, and their working backgrounds are very different
  2. The role of families and primary groups in urban communities has diminished, replaced by various formal organizations
  3. In urban communities, human interaction tends to be functional, rational and superficial
  4. Urban communities exist and accommodate more cultural differences
  • community development
  • What is community development: It refers to the promotion of planned social changes in urban and rural grass-roots communities by the community residents relying on their own strength, with the support of the government and other organizational structures, to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of the community, and to improve the quality of life of the community residents.
  1. In the process of forming the concept of community development, the most famous event in Britain, France and the United States in the early 20th century is the community good-neighbor movement, the main way is to set up community good-neighborliness service centers in poor areas of the city , to help people develop resources in their communities, and use self-help methods to improve the living conditions of the poor.
  2. The book "Talk to the People" co-written by internationally renowned female writers Pearl S. S. Buck and Yan Yangchu attracted attention from all over the world at the beginning of the establishment of the United Nations. In November 1945, when the first meeting of UNESCO was held in Paris, Chinese representative Qu Shiying and Yan Yangchu attended the meeting. Ding County's rural construction work experience, Yan Yangchu himself also gave a speech at the United Nations in 1949.
  3. The concept of community development was advocated by the United Nations after World War II and promoted worldwide.
  • Goals and Principles of Community Development
  • The purpose of community development: duality.
  1. The mission goal of community
  2. The process goal of community development is to promote the social participation of community residents, cultivate the spirit of mutual assistance and cooperation among community residents, and improve the ability of community residents to be self-reliant and cooperate to solve problems.
  • Principles of Community Development (Principles of Community Development in China):
  1. principles of democracy
  2. the principle of popular needs
  3. self-reliance principle
  4. The principle of combining bottom-up and top-down
  5. The principle of paying equal attention to the construction of material civilization, spiritual civilization and political civilization
  • Community Building in Chinese Cities
  • The Basic Process of Urban Community Construction in China
  1. 社区建设，是以人们日常居住和生活的基层社区为载体，通过社区居民自治，社区与政府、企业和其他社会组织共同合作，来建立一个和现代社会保障体系、现代城市管理制度和社会化服务网络相适应的社区支持系统。
  2. 中国的社区建设始自20世纪80年代中期。
  • 社区建设的原因及其本质
  • 当前社区发展的基本任务
  1. 促进城市治理体系的进一步完善
  2. 促进民主政治建设
  3. 减轻市场经济发展对社会生活带来的负面影响

第十章 城镇化

第一节 城镇化概述（城镇化是社会变迁的一种表现，是人类的物质与精神形态的日益演进的过程。）

  • 城镇你给的概念与特征
  • 什么是城镇化：又称城市化、都市化，指人口和社会职能向城市或城市聚集，生产方式、文化模式和社会角色发生变化，使城乡融合的过程。
  • 世界城镇化演进模式
  1. 欧美模式：市场主导型城镇化，其起始和演进的产业革命引导的工业发展、社会分工和市场细化的自然结果。
  2. 墨印模式：政治主导型城镇化。
  • 当代城镇化的特征
  1. 城镇化进程速度加快
  2. 大城市发展速度明显
  3. 知识经济、科技、物流、信息、通讯和其他活动领域的不断创新提升了城镇化的内涵
  4. 城市文化、城市生活方式、城市价值观念的进步及其扩散加速
  5. 发达国家郊区城镇化加速，已进入逆城镇化和再城镇化进程
  6. 发展中国家的城镇化已构成当今世界城镇化的主体
  • 世界城镇化的“推-拉”理论：世界城镇化发轫于18世纪中叶，工业革命兴起之时，英国是工业革命的策源地，19世纪末，它率先实现了城镇化。人口流动过程中迁出地的推力和迁入地的拉力相互作用形成的合力理论。19世纪末，这一理论最早由英国人口学家雷文斯坦在“人口迁移的规律”的著述中提出。
  • 城镇代的类型
  1. 同步城镇化：城镇化的进程与工业化和经济发展的水平趋于一致的城镇化
  2. 过度城镇化：又称超前城镇化，指城镇化水平明显超过工业化和经济发展水平的城镇化
  3. 滞后城镇化：城镇化水平落后于工业化和经济发展水平的城镇化
  4. 低度城镇化：以农业产业为主导，工业基础薄弱的城镇化
  5. Counter-urbanization: Urbanization in which the urban population, especially the suburban population of large cities, and the scattered distribution of satellite towns in the periphery of large cities.
  • World City: The high-end form of an international city refers to an international city that is at a high level in the process of urban internationalization and can exert global influence in the fields of world economy, politics, and culture, also known as a global city. (divided into three levels)
  1. World cities, also known as global international cities: New York, London, Tokyo
  2. International cities in the region: Paris, Hong Kong
  3. National international cities: Beijing, Shanghai
  • world city group
  • The concept of urban agglomeration: also known as "urban circle", "urban belt", "urban cluster" and "metropolitan contiguous area" refers to an urban agglomeration area with a population size of more than 25 million and a population density of more than 250 people per square kilometer. (Proposed by Joan Gottman) Three major urban agglomerations in China: Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (Bohai Rim)
  • Classification of urban agglomerations:
  1. From the perspective of scale and level, it can be divided into: super urban agglomeration, first-level urban agglomeration, second-level urban agglomeration, and third-level urban agglomeration
  2. From the perspective of form and structure, it can be divided into: galaxy city group, belt city group, fan-shaped city group, grape bunch city group
  3. From the perspective of central cities, it can be divided into: single-core urban agglomeration, dual-core urban agglomeration, and multi-core urban agglomeration
  • Urban agglomeration research:
  1. Garden City: Presented in Howard's Tomorrow: A Peaceful Road to Real Reform. He advocated that the garden city should have both the advantages of the city and the countryside, and a city with a blend of urban and rural areas and a combination of groups.
  2. Combining Cities: Patrick Geddes Creates the Concept of "Urbanology" Cities in Evolution - An Introduction to Urban Planning and Urban Studies.
  3. The theory of overall regional development: Lewis Mumford inherited Geddes' thought of regional rules and creatively put forward the theory of overall regional development.
  4. Theory of concentrated urban development: Le Corbusier put forward the theory of concentrated urban development from the perspective of urban planning vision.
  5. Urban Agglomeration Theory: Gottman Urban Agglomeration: Urbanization on the Northeast Coast
  6. Urban-rural integration area

Section 2 China's urbanization process

  • The Historical Background of China's Urban Generation
  1. Four characteristics of urbanization in the period of the Republic of China:
  1. Commercialization is stronger than industrialization, and industry, commerce, cities and urban populations are highly concentrated along the coast
  2. There are very few big cities, and the urban development is deformed and bloated
  3. Urban road facilities are extremely backward
  4. The nature of cities is mostly consumption parasitism, and they have become strongholds for imperialism, bureaucratic compradors, and feudal landlords to squeeze the people, forming serious urban-rural antagonisms, coastal and inland antagonisms
  • The Three Stages of China's Urbanization
  1. The first stage (1949-1957) is a steady start stage
  2. The second stage (1958-1977) is a stage of ups and downs
  3. The third stage (1978 to the present) is the stage of accelerated development
  • Planning and Evolution of Urban Agglomerations in China (Existing Problems:)
  1. 城市群形成过程的人为因素过大，行政干预过高，缺乏市场机制的自然发育期
  2. 城市群的形成和发展依然受限于现存行政体制的束缚，利益的矛盾和冲突易发，降低了整体和各自的效率和效益
  3. 城市群的人口和经济总量在全国的比重还不高，对全国城乡协调发展和经济社会协调发展的拉动还有限
  4. 城市群内部结构还不完善，大中小城市还比较少，缺乏连接中心城市与众多小城镇和广大农村之间的中间环节
  5. 城市群空间分布不均衡，特别是人口和经济分布不协调，产业结构重叠严重

第三节 中国城镇化道路的选择与小城镇的建设

  • 中国城镇化道路选择的不同观点：
  1. 大中城市论：根据中国经济发展现状，在相当长时期内，城镇化的主要动力将来源于大中城市的扩张。
  2. 均衡发展论：又称为城市休息网络论，中国的城镇应该建立以大城市为领导，以中等城市为骨干，以各类小城镇为基础的多层次、多功能的网络系统。
  3. 多元模式论：主张城镇化道路应该考虑到巨大的地域差异
  4. 小城镇重点论：中国建设社会主义，从根本上看首先要把2/3的农村剩余劳动力转移到工业方面去，使整个国家的多数人口成为非农业劳动者。
  • 中国城镇化的方针：于1978年提出“控制大城市，多搞小城市”的城镇化方针。1980年10月，全国城镇化工作会议提出了“控制大城市规模，合理发展中等城市，积极发展小城镇”的城镇建设方针。
  • 促进中国小城镇的健康发展
  • 城镇化道路的可持续发展：
  1. 小城镇建设要有科学规划
  2. 小城镇建设规模要适度
  3. 小城镇建设要重视生态环境保护
  4. 建立健全健康发展的体制机制
  • 中国小城镇健康发展的体制机制：
  1. 建立与城镇化健康发展相适应的财税、征地、行政管理和公共服务等制度
  2. 加快小城镇住房、就业、医疗、教育和社会保障制度的市场化改革
  3. 加快对小城镇建设的投入，在政府引导下主要通过发挥市场机制的作用，引导社会资金投入小城镇开发
  4. 在保护耕地和保障农民合法权益的前提下，妥善解决小城市建设用地
  5. 改革小城镇管理体制，尽快形成符合小城镇经济社会特点的行政管理体制
  6. In particular, it is necessary to strengthen the civic quality education of residents in small towns, so that they can adapt to the urban culture as much as possible and assume the responsibility of town builders.

Chapter 11 Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Section 1 Social Inequality

  • What is social inequality: broad sense refers to social differences, any differences between individuals or groups (represented by Jean-Jacques Rousseau: ① natural or physical inequality ② spiritual or political inequality); narrow sense is Refers to class differences among individuals or groups.
  • Related Concepts of Social Inequality
  • gender and age
  1. It refers to the physiological and psychological differences between men and women, which are mainly manifested in six aspects:
  1. In terms of language expression: female wins
  2. In terms of vision and balance ability: male wins
  3. Logical thinking and mathematics: Male wins
  4. Tactile aspect: female wins
  5. Competitiveness and aggressiveness: Men win
  6. Memory and Observation: Female Wins
  • caste, race and class
  1. Caste: A social hierarchy that divides members of society into different groups based on blood, blood and occupation.
  2. Race: Also known as race, it refers to a group of people who have the genetic characteristics of living together in terms of institutional form.
  3. Class: Refers to groups or social groups that are distinguished from each other by economic status and political and legal status.
  • class and class
  1. Class: Refers to such groups that, because of their different positions in social production in history, their relationship to the means of production, and their roles in social labor organizations, they have received their share of social labor. The way and amount of wealth are also different.
  2. Class: One refers to the hierarchical division within the class, and the other refers to groups with different social status.
  • Social division of labor and social inequality
  • Private ownership and the emergence of human inequality: as early as the 18th century, the French Enlightenment thinker Rousseau put forward the book "On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", which clearly stated that the emergence of human inequality came with private ownership and was established. On the sole basis established by private ownership. "The earliest exponent of the theory of division of labor," Adam Smith , first created the concept of "division of labor" in his book "A Study of the Nature and Causes of National Wealth" and expounded the relationship between social division of labor and class formation.
  • Social division of labor and social inequality:
  1. Marx and Engels' theory of social division of labor: Marx's theory of class division holds that the fundamental criterion of class division is the ownership relationship to the means of production.
  1. There is a difference between the natural division of labor and the real division of labor
  2. It is a qualitative leap from natural division of labor to real division of labor
  3. The unequal distribution of products and private ownership of products arose alongside the real division of labor
  4. The development of the division of labor led to the separation of material labor and spiritual labor
  5. The largest division of labor between material labor and spiritual labor is the separation of cities and villages
  6. In a society of class antagonisms, the development of the division of labor is of a contradictory nature
  • Two research traditions of social inequality: stage analysis and stratification research constitute two research traditions of social inequality.
  1. Hierarchical analysis: class struggle is the key to understanding the historical development of mankind (including the evolution of social inequality), and its conflict theory assumptions about social inequality are clearly reflected in the Communist Manifesto.
  2. Stratification research: refers to the social inequality research tradition that focuses on the distribution and acquisition of "life opportunities". three phases:
  1. Weber's discourses on class, status groups, and normality constitute the theoretical sources of the tradition;
  2. K. Davies and W. Moore, who provided the earliest and clearest formulations of the functionalist layering principle
  3. Blau and Duncan, they solved the operational problem of functional stratification research methodologically, and laid the foundation for social stratification as the mainstream paradigm of social inequality research
  1. Differences: The two have different ontological assumptions about what social inequality is.

Section 2 Social Stratification

  • The concept of social stratification is the unequal distribution of social resources in society. Social stratification includes two basic contents: social stratification structure and social mobility.
  • Related Theories of Social Stratification
  • Social Stratification Theory of Classical Sociologists
  1. Marxist Theory of Social Stratification
  1. The existence of classes is only related to a certain historical stage in the development of production
  2. Class struggle will inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat
  3. This dictatorship itself is nothing but a transition to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society
  1. Weber's social stratification theory: Weber mainly understands this concept from the possession relationship of production capital. In Weber's view, the category of class means the influence of various economic factors on people's life opportunities. These two Criteria: property occupancy status and market conditions. Weber believed that the three dimensions (three criteria) of economy, politics and society have relatively independent influences on social stratification and have different sources. Therefore, when we investigate the phenomenon of social stratification, we need to adopt Diverse standards.
  1. Weber distinguished four classes:
  • the upper propertied class, that is, the class with a huge advantage in property possession
  • The dominant occupational class, that is, the class that has an advantage in the market situation
  • The petty bourgeoisie, that is, those who have some but not obvious advantages in both property and market conditions
  • The working class, whose jobs often require only very simple skill training, are therefore in a weaker market position in capitalist society
  1. Three dimensions constructed by Weber:
  • Class categories: provide economic criteria for social stratification
  • Status category: Provides social criteria for social stratification
  • Normal category: Provides political criteria for social stratification
  1. Pareto's elite theory: divided into ruling elites and non-governing elites. It is believed that the composition of the ruling elite class and its status are not constant, and as time goes by, members of the ruling group may be promoted or degraded. In 1916, "General Sociology" was published, which systematically expounded the theory of elite class.
  • contemporary social stratification theory
  1. Functionalist theory of social stratification: social stratification is the embodiment of social inequality; the reason why social stratification is common in all ages and societies is because of the needs of the social operation process.  Representatives: K. Davis and W. Moore
  1. K. Davies and W. Moore jointly published "Several Principles of Stratification" layered view:
  • There are some positions in any society that are more important than others and require special talents and skills to fill them
  • These talented people need to go through a certain period of training before they can work, and pay for it
  • Correspondingly, their future positions must have attractive special value
  • The society gives preference to these special talents in terms of rewards, so all members of society will benefit from this
  • The difference in the pay of these positions is the so-called status gap in social stratification.
  • It is manifested as social stratification differences in the enjoyment of rare items and status and prestige, which has positive functions for society and is an inevitable social phenomenon
  1. The Defects of Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification
  • An endowed or inherited advantage that may affect the logic of different resource allocations
  • People with strong abilities may not always get substantial incentives such as high pay
  • Inequality in education leads to not necessarily equal access to status
  • In general, social stratification does not ensure that the most talented people fill the most important roles or train them to fill those roles
  1. Social stratification in conflict theory: Emphasizing the role of conflict in the formation of inequality. The representative is Dahuadov, who believes that the origin of social stratification lies in the fact that in any society, individuals or groups must enforce rewards and punishments, and this ability to implement means the existence of power relations.
  • Social Stratification and Its Changes in Contemporary China
  • The class structure before the founding of New China (Mao Zedong's "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society")
  1. The landlord class and the comprador class: the class representing the most backward and reactionary production relations in China
  2. national bourgeoisie
  3. petty bourgeoisie
  4. semi-proletarian
  5. The proletariat: the industrial workers of modern industry, is the leading force of the revolution.
  6. nomad class
  7. Peasant class: rich peasants, owner farmers (middle peasants), semi-owner farmers, farm laborers
  • The class structure before the reform and opening up

1949-1952: It was called the period of national economic recovery in history; 1953-1956: It was the period of socialist transformation.

In 1977, the status of classes and strata in Chinese society:

  1. working class
  2. Peasant class
  3. intellectual class
  • The Class Structure of Chinese Society Since the Reform and Opening Up
  1. State and Social Managers
  2. manager class
  3. class of private entrepreneurs
  4. Professional and technical personnel class
  5. clerical class
  6. self-employed business class
  7. business service workers
  8. industrial working class
  9. agricultural labor class
  10. Urban and rural unemployed, unemployed, and semi-unemployed strata
  • social mobility
  • Concepts and Types of Social Mobility
  • The concept of social mobility refers to the change of social members from one social status or occupation to another.
  1. Sorokin's book "Social Mobility" published in 1927 is considered by the sociological circles to be the first work on social mobility from a modern perspective .
  2. Social mobility research mainly involves three levels of issues:
  1. Social mobility can be viewed as a dynamic hierarchical system
  2. Social mobility can be regarded as a process of macroscopic social structure change, which includes changes in the entire social class within the entire social hierarchy
  3. Social mobility can be regarded as the change of the position, role and attribute of individual social members in the social stratification system, which means the transformation of social members' relationship
  1. The meaning of social mobility:
  1. Socialized large-scale production objectively requires the realization of labor flow and talent flow, and the rational allocation of labor force
  2. In modern society, the traditional status acquisition model based on personal origin is gradually being replaced by the modern model based on personal performance, and social mobility has become an important way for individuals to obtain social status
  3. Social mobility strengthens the connection between individual talents and achievements and their social status, which is conducive to creating a positive spirit and the vitality of sub-divisional society
  4. Social mobility is conducive to strengthening the connection between various social groups, eliminating possible social barriers, and promoting the social identity of social members, thus playing a positive role in social development.
  • Types of social mobility:
  1. Vertical flow and horizontal flow : vertical flow refers to the upward and downward flow between different levels in the social stratification system, also known as vertical flow, such as farmers becoming entrepreneurs; horizontal flow refers to the same social stratification level. The flow within the same layer is also called horizontal flow, such as farmers leaving their original villages to continue farming in other villages.
  2. Intra-generational flow and intergenerational flow : Intra-generational flow refers to the change of social status in an individual's life, especially in his working life. A farmer becomes a job after entering a factory; intergenerational flow refers to the change of children's status relative to their parents. For example, the father works in agriculture and the daughter becomes a white-collar worker .
  3. Structural flow and free flow : Structural flow is a large-scale social flow caused by production technology or social system, such as the flow of rural population to cities . The transfer of white-collar workers; free mobility, which refers to social mobility not due to system changes but due to personal special reasons ( such as social mobility caused by personal efforts, accidental opportunities, etc. ).
  4. Competitive vs. Sponsored Mobility: Social mobility without human help is the norm. In competitive mobility, the relative social status, which is the goal of open competition, needs to be obtained through the efforts of the suitors themselves. Sponsored mobility refers to the relatively remote social status that is not obtained directly by individuals through competition, but is conferred by those who have already obtained a higher status according to certain predetermined standards, such as a certain position or a certain position. honorary title.
  • Social Mobility in Contemporary China
  • Five large-scale social movements since the founding of New China
  1. 1949-1956: The new social mobility model is marked by the reshaping of the social class structure before the founding of New China
  2. 1957-1965: Constructed a multi-dimensional binary differential hierarchy
  3. 1966-1977: The Cultural Revolution
  4. 1978-1991：
  5. 1922-now
  • The factors and mechanisms that affect social mobility in China are mainly influenced by three factors: at the macro level, it is subject to the social structure and the country’s institutional arrangements; at the medium level, it depends on the work unit and family; at the micro level, it depends on the individual’s acquired efforts .
  1. social mobility caused by the institutional arrangement itself
  2. Institutional Arrangement and Pre-given Factors, Self-induced Social Mobility
  3. Institutional Arrangement Suppresses Social Mobility Caused by Inherent Factors or Self-Induced Factors
  4. Some loopholes or biases in institutional arrangements are exploited by some members of the society, resulting in social mobility
  • The Characteristics of Current Social Mobility in China
  1. Significant changes have taken place in the pattern of social mobility: Before and after the reform, China experienced two patterns of social mobility: the politically dominated social mobility pattern and the economically induced social mobility pattern.
  2. Social structure from closed to open
  3. Social mobility is trending upwards
  4. At present, social mobility in China is still subject to social transformation and system transition, with obvious transformation characteristics
  5. The current social mobility in China is showing some negative trends that are not conducive to social openness and fairness.
  1. The intergenerational inheritance of class mobility is increasing
  2. Major resources such as economic resources, political resources, and cultural resources tend to gather at the upper levels
  3. Some institutional barriers to fair and reasonable social mobility have not been removed, but continue to affect social mobility

Chapter 12 Deviant Behavior and Social Control 

  • what is deviant behavior
  • The concept of deviant behavior:
  1. Deviant behavior: Refers to behaviors in which social members deviate from existing social norms to varying degrees in a particular society, also known as deviant behavior, deviant behavior, and differential behavior.
  2. Social norms: In any society, there is a set of codes of conduct that are binding on the behavior of social members to regulate the social relationship between people and between individuals and society, and to guide the social behavior of social members. This is social norms.
  • Types of Deviant Behavior
  • According to the manifestation of deviant behavior, it can be divided into three types: deviant habit, deviant psychology, and deviant culture
  1. Deviation habits: Refers to the behavior of personal behavior hobbies that are not recognized by society.
  2. Deviation psychology: Refers to behaviors that cannot be performed in regular social interactions or social activities due to psychological or spiritual reasons
  3. Culture of Deviation: Refers to behaviors manifested in a culture that differs from the dominant culture of the society.
  • According to the standards of the social code of conduct that the behavior deviates from, it can be divided into three types: illegal behavior, illegal behavior, and illegal behavior.
  1. Illegal acts: Refers to acts that violate the provisions of national laws, including crimes and illegal acts that do not constitute crimes.
  2. Violation of rules and regulations: Refers to behaviors that violate rules and regulations related to maintaining social security and public order.
  3. Violations: Refers to any behavior that violates established lifestyles and customs.
  • function of deviant behavior
  • Negative function of deviant behavior
  1. interfere with the normal order of social life
  2. Harm the interests of individuals and society
  3. Weaken the willingness of others to follow the norm
  4. destroy mutual trust among members of society
  • positive function of deviant behavior
  1. Help people to further understand social norms
  2. Helps strengthen social cohesion
  3. Contribute to social early warning
  4. contribute to social progress
  • Theoretical Explanation of Deviant Behavior
  • The Biological Explanation of Deviant Behavior and Its Fundamental Flaws

    Biological explanation is to explain the reasons for deviant behaviors from the biological and physiological characteristics of individuals. It assumes that some people are born to be unruly people, so it mainly focuses on finding the personal physiological substances of thought actors, especially emphasizing genetic factors role . The earliest biological explanation was proposed by Italian military doctor Lombroso in the late 19th century. There are three human body types: chubby (easy and comfortable); slender (serious and restrained); and robust (vigorous and insensitive). The biological explanation of deviant behavior is to explain the reasons for the occurrence of thought behaviors from the individual's anger and physiological characteristics. It assumes that some people are naturally unruly people, so it mainly focuses on finding the personal physiological characteristics of deviant behavior, especially Emphasize the role of genetic factors.

  • Psychological Explanation of Deviated Behavior

    Psychological interpretation attaches great importance to the influence of individual psychological factors such as spirit, emotion, and personality on behavior , and believes that thought behavior is due to the individual's psychological inability to learn and abide by relevant social norms. Psychological explanation mainly includes psychoanalysis theory and behavior theory. Austrian psychologist Freud believes that it is not genetics that cause behavioral deviations, but a person's personality formed by an individual's childhood experience that leads to behavioral problems in adulthood.

  • Sociological Explanation of Deviant Behavior
  • Anomie theory: American scholar Merton, an important representative of structural functionalism, applied Durkheim's anomie concept and established the famous anomie theory to explain the occurrence of deviant behavior. Merton believes that there are two kinds of social norms, one is the social norms for the goals pursued by individuals, such as acquiring wealth and good reputation; the other is the norms for the means used by individuals to pursue goals, such as doing business or politics. When members of society have accepted the goals of social norms through socialization, and society provides them with the means to pursue these goals at the same time, then the goals and means are in balance. Social anomie will put people in a state of anomie tension. To alleviate this tension, Merton believes that people may adapt in five ways:
  1. obey
  2. 革新：革新者，即为追求社会鼓励的目标，采用了不被社会认可的手段，甚至是违法的手段。
  3. 形式主义：拒绝社会提供的目标，但仍然遵守社会规范的手段行事。有的学生对于学习了无兴趣，却依然新人家长和老师的意愿每天上学读书，这种偏差行为是形式主义。
  4. 退缩主义：既放弃了社会鼓励的目标，也抛弃了社会认可的手段。
  5. 反叛：不仅拒绝社会认可的目标和手段，而且试图从个人观念出民，以新的目标和手段来替代。当这种偏差行为涉及政治领域时，通常也被称为革命
  • 文化传递理论
  1. 概念：文化传递理论，也称为亚文化理论。这个理论认为偏差行为者表现出来的偏差行为是从其所处的文化环境中习得的，他们不是偏离了社会规范，而是遵循着所在团体的社会规范，他们的行之所以被视为偏差行为，只是因为他们所在团体的规范和主流的社会规范不一致，甚至是矛盾的。
  2. 文化传递理论把社会文化分为：主流文化、亚文化
  • 标签理论：一种行为之所以被视为偏差行为，是因为社会的权力集团给这种行为贴上了偏差的标签，偏差行为只是一种被社会定义为偏差的行为。
  • 社会控制
  • 什么是社会控制
  • 社会控制的概念：
  1. 社会控制最早是由美国社会学家罗斯在其《社会控制》一书中所提出并加以阐述的。
  2. 广义的社会控制:指社会组织通过社会规范以及相应的方式和手段，对社会成员的社会行为进行指导和限制，对各类社会关系加以调节和制约，对社会成员的价值观进行引导和约束的过程。
  3. 狭义的社会控制：主要指对偏差行为给予惩处和重新教育的过程。
  4. 控制的三个方面：
  1. 对社会行为的控制：社会控制首先是对社会成员的社会行为予以制约，要求社会成员按照社会规范去行事。
  2. 对社会关系的控制：还表现在对社会成员的社会关系的控制和协调上。
  3. 对社会价值的控制：根本上是对社会成员的思想、观念和意识的控制。
  • 社会控制的特点
  1. 普遍性：社会控制的普遍性表现在任何社会以及社会发展的任何阶段，社会控制总是存在的。
  2. 规范性：指社会是盲目进行的，而是朝着设定的目标来实施的
  3. 多重性：对于社会成员 的方式不是单一的，而是多样的。
  • 社会控制的必要性
  1. 社会控制的必要性首先表现在个人与个人之间、个人与社会之间的目标不一致
  2. 社会控制的必要性表现在稳定各种社会关系上
  3. 社会控制的必要性体现在制止社会生活中各种失控现象方面
  • 社会控制的类型
  • 宏观控制和微观控制
  1. 宏观控制：是指社会利用法律、政策、条令等手段对整个社会加以控制，包括政治、经济、文化等方面
  2. 微观控制：相对于宏观控制而言，在社会生活的各个具体领域所实现的控制，这些领域涉及人们最基本的社会生活需求。
  • 制度化控制和非制度化控制
  1. 制度化控制：指按照一整套条文规定，有某种组织体系加以推行的一种社会控制形式
  2. 非制度化控制：指社会控制的形式并不以明文规定的条文来实现，而是通过社会成员日常互动所形成的共识来实现
  • 外在控制和内在控制
  1. 外在控制：指利用外部社会力量促使社会成员遵从社会规范。
  2. 内在控制：指行为者个人将社会规范内化为自己持有的观念，从而自觉地按照社会规范的要求约束自己的社会行为。“君子戒慎乎其所不睹、恐惧乎其所不闻”，就是要求人们即使在没有其他人在场，也就是没有外部力量监督的情况下，仍然能够把握自己，不放纵自己的行为，严于律已。内在控制强调社会规范的习得和内化，社会成员不是被迫而是自觉地遵从社会规范，这是社会控制最有效的方式。
  • 积极性控制和消极性控制
  1. 积极性控制：指利用奖励手段来鼓励社会成员遵从社会规范，包括物质奖励和精神奖励。例如学校为了促使学生努力学习，建立奖学金、跳级等激励机制来奖励学习成绩优秀的学生，同时也鼓励其他学生迎头赶上。
  2. 消极性控制：指利用惩罚手段来防止社会成员的偏差行为。刑法就是通过明确对犯罪行为的惩罚来取得一种禁止犯罪的威慑力，学校也会设置一些惩罚机制，比如记过、开除学籍等手段生违反学校的规章制度。
  • 社会控制的方式
  • 法律控制：是由国家制定或认可，以强制力保证其实施的一种社会规范。
  • Moral control : People agree on a set of value standards for distinguishing right from wrong, good from evil, and justice from injustice in collective life. Moral control usually does not rely on state violence to achieve, but relies on education, public opinion and individual inner preference to urge people to abide by moral norms.
  • Customary control : The code of conduct that people gradually form and abide by in collective life is the most basic and primitive form of social control in human life.
  • religious control
  • The Moderation Problem of Social Control
  1. Social control is the process of guiding and restricting people's social behavior, so the relationship between people and society is a problem. Therefore, the problem of the appropriateness of social control is before us, that is to say, to avoid social "out of control" or social "over control". The so-called social over-control refers to over-emphasizing the aspect of social control and ignoring the individual expression and freedom requirements of social members. The so-called loss of social control refers to the relative weakening of social control and the improvement of the freedom of social members. Both of these situations are not conducive to the coordination of social relations, and are not conducive to the exertion of the overall effect of society. They should be avoided as much as possible, and once discovered, they must be overcome and corrected in time.
  2. To understand this problem, one must see the dialectic between social control and individual freedom. Individual freedom in any society is not absolute, and absolute individual freedom is impossible to realize. Therefore, social control only restricts and restricts the absolute freedom of individuals, but does not restrict and restrict the relative freedom of individuals
  3. The relative freedom of individuals is realized on the premise of consciously obeying social norms. Social control is the control and guidance of individual social behavior, not the control and guidance of all individual behaviors.
  4. Reasonable and moderate social control is conducive to the all-round development of human personality and creative play, as well as social stability and prosperity. On the contrary, it is the suppression of individuality, which is not conducive to social progress. The ultimate effect of any form of social control must be reflected in the actual control of social members, including the control of their social behavior, social relations, and social consciousness. These personal behaviors, relationships, and consciousness are all characteristics of a person as a member of society, and to a certain extent reflect the entire appearance of the individual and the difference between his beliefs and others.

Chapter 13 Social Issues

Section 1 What is a social problem

  • definition of social problems
  • The Meaning and Constituent Conditions of Social Problems
  1. Social problems: Refers to the problems that affect the normal life of all or some members of the society due to the obstacles in the social process in the relationship between individuals and society or the imbalance between the social structure and the social environment.
  2. Sun Wenwen’s Three Interpretations of Social Issues: "Chinese Social Issues", "Modern Chinese Social Issues"
  1. Explain the emergence of social problems from the perspective of social change and cultural dissonance
  2. A problem is a social problem as long as it attracts the attention of most people in the society and requires collective action to adjust and remedy it.
  3. From the point of view of social psychology, social problems are not only a visible social phenomenon, but mainly a kind of psychological state of people, which is a kind of value judgment.
  1. In 1941, American sociologists Richard Fuller and Richard Maltz pointed out in the article "The Development of Social Problems" that all social problems have to go through three stages of vigilance and policy reform:
  1. Vigilance: When the value of people's benefit to the people is threatened and becomes more and more serious, then vigilance and appeal
  2. Policy formulation: Different interest groups focus on solving problems, and after repeated debates, make resolutions, formulate plans and policies.
  3. Reform: The government listens to the appeals of the people, and relevant departments join in the action to implement the planned policies and promote the solution of the problem.
  1. Components of social problems
  1. Some social phenomena produce dissonance
  2. This disorder affects the normal social life of many people
  3. This disorder has aroused the concern of quite a few members of society
  4. This imbalance requires the mobilization of social forces for comprehensive governance
  • The difference between social problems and personal troubles
        American sociologist Wright Mills in the book "Sociological Imagination" regards social problems as public problems, and believes that public problems are different from personal troubles.
  1. Personal troubles must be related to the individual's self, and are only related to the limited social life field that the individual directly experiences, while social problems involve things that go beyond the individual's local environment and beyond the personal life field.
  2. Distress concerns only the individual, i.e. the individual feels that a value he or she holds dear is at stake, whereas a social problem is public, i.e. a value shared by the public is threatened
  3. Personal troubles have personal characteristics, and they only occur in the area of ​​direct relationship between the individual and others, while social problems have public characteristics, and they often contain institutional and structural crises, as well as what Marx called "contradiction". " and "struggle".
  • General characteristics of social problems: The so-called characteristics: refer to the remarkable signs and signs that distinguish one thing from other things.
  • Sociality: ①Generation of social problems ②Influence of social problems ③Elimination of social problems
  • Universality: Social problems are everywhere and all the time.
  • Particularity: It is relative to universal characteristics. Although it exists all the time, specific social problems may arise at a specific time and in a specific region.
  • Clustering: Social problems often do not appear individually, but appear in groups. At this time, social problems are more destructive.
  • Complexity: The causes of social problems are often diverse, and the consequences of various factors are diverse.
  • Several Theories of Social Problem Research
  • Sociopathology: Popular before World War I and revived only with a revision in the 1960s. The view that people and things that violate moral expectations as "pathological," that is, social problems, is social pathology. The theoretical basis of social pathology is mainly social organism theory.
  • Social Disorganization Theory: Prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s after World War I, social disorganization theory focuses on explaining social problems from the perspective of social structure. Its representatives include Cooley, Ogburn, Thomas and Znanicki. The so-called social disorganization means that various rules in the society have lost their effectiveness in restricting individual behaviors, and the society can neither provide people with the expected rewards and returns, nor punish behaviors that violate the rules. Social disorganization theory holds that social disorganization stems from social change .
  1. Social disorganization theory takes the form of:
  1. Anarchy : that is, there is no uniform set of appropriate social norms in social life to guide people's actions
  2. Cultural conflict : that is, there are at least two opposing value norms and rules in social life, which make people at a loss what to do;
  3. Value collapse : that is, the social value system and normative system are completely confused.
  1. 社会解组理论认为，社会问题最有效的解决方法是尽快建立社会规范和秩序，重建社会的均衡体系。其实这正是孔德当初创建社会学的宗旨所在。
  • 价值冲突理论：认开成于20世纪30年代，经过大萧条和二战之后在四五十年代占据了社会问题研究的主流地位。价值冲突理论认为，由于所处的社会经济地位和既得利益不同，人们对同一问题可能会有不同的价值证券标准和不同的立场、态度，因此在采取某种行为措施改变某一社会现象时，常常会引起矛盾和冲突，而这种矛盾和冲突往往发生在之间。为文化价值或兴趣上的冲突是造成社会问题的根本原因的价值冲突理论。价值冲突理论有三种方法来解决社会问题中存在的利益与价值分裂的情交：①交涉；②达成协议；③使用权力
  • 行为偏差理论：把社会问题看成作偏离社会规范的念头行为的结果。其中失落理论、亚文化理论和标签理论是解释念头得为的几个重要理论。
  • 社会建构理论：社会建构理论认为，不存在客观意义上的社会问题、所谓社会问题是人们主观建构出来的，社会问题仅仅是人们对某种社会情况的办公室过程的主观产物，因此研究社会问题的社会学家真正面对的研究对象不是社会问题本身，而是某种情况如何被定义为社会问题的社会建构过程及其客观条件。社会建构理论主要研究社会问题定义过程中：①社会问题的办公室是如何提出并明确化的；②人们如何维护这种界定；③被有问题的人具有什么样的权力；④后者在寻求修正有关定义时采取的行动和形成的机构

第二节 当代社会问题（指社会制度或社会政策失调诱发的社会问题）

  • 结构性问题：指社会制度或政策失调诱发的社会问题。包括腐败问题、贫困问题。
  • 腐败问题:是权利的滥用，即国家工作人员利用政府和公众所赋予的权力，骗取或以其他手段为个人或某个集团非法占有公共财物的行为。
  1. 腐败的原因
  1. Feudalism's concept of privilege, concept of "official standard", concept of law-abiding, concept of hierarchy, concept of nepotism, concept of personal dependence and other old habits are the ideological focus of party and government cadres who use power for personal gain and deteriorate.
  2. The corrupt ideology and way of life of capitalism took advantage of the tide of reform and opening up. Some officials and cadres could not withstand the temptation and embarked on the road of accepting bribes according to the law, smuggling arbitrage, whoring, taking drugs, and selling state secrets.
  3. During the transformation process of the old and new systems, due to the slow or incomplete reform of systems and mechanisms, especially the over-centralization of power, the traditional power structure is still deeply entrenched, objectively there are many loopholes and weak links, which are conducive to the breeding of corruption such as power-for-money transactions and power-to-power transactions. The fearful returnees provided the soil and conditions.
  4. Platinumism, hedonism and extreme individualism are growing among some party members and cadres, which is an important reason for the spread of corruption .
  • Poverty: It refers to a living state in which people cannot obtain basic means of subsistence due to various reasons under corresponding social and historical conditions.
  1. Causes of urban poverty in my country
  1. From the perspective of historical factors, after the founding of New China, the large population, wrong decision-making, and long-term low production efficiency have been influenced by the ideological concept of "many children, many grandchildren, many blessings", etc., which are the deep historical reasons for the urban poverty problem in our country.
  2. From the perspective of social and economic reasons, the system defects of state-owned enterprises have caused large-scale losses, and the number of disadvantaged unemployed people has increased rapidly; the reform of the social security system has been lagging behind, which has weakened the society's help for the urban poor, and the traditional employment and employment system has hindered urban poverty. Population's autonomous poverty alleviation.
  3. From the perspective of income distribution reasons, the unfair distribution of industries and changes in distribution factors lead to the continuous expansion of income gap and the polarization between rich and poor
  4. From the perspective of unemployment reasons, unemployment means the loss of income sources, which in turn leads to life difficulties, and China is at a peak period of unemployment.
  5. From the perspective of personal and family reasons, single-parent families, families with disabled people, seriously ill patients, and elderly people without pensions often have more economic burdens and are more likely to fall into poverty; Those with a low level, those who are helpless or have no fixed source of income, or those with extremely low income constitute the basic composition of China's urban poor.
  • Deviational social problems: Refers to social problems caused by individuals deviating from or violating certain social behavior norms. Such as fighting, alcoholism, drug abuse, AIDS, gambling, suicide issues, etc. Some of them are violations of discipline and law, and some are violations of laws and crimes.
  • Drug problem: Refers to opium, heroin, marijuana, etc. and other addictive narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances controlled by the state.
  1. The basics of drugs:
  1. Narcotics are part of narcotics
  2. The essential feature of drugs is that they can cause people to become addicted and have a belief in dependence on drugs.
  3. Drugs are drugs that are regulated by the state
  4. There are many types of drugs, some of which are clearly not for medical use
  1. International Anti-Drug Day: June 26.
  2. The dangers of drugs:
  1. Harmful to health
  2. destroy family harmony
  3. corrupt social atmosphere
  4. Corrupt regime organization
  5. Hinder socialist economic construction and national defense construction.
  • Food safety issues:
  1. The meaning of food safety: refers to food that is non-toxic and harmless, meets the nutritional requirements it should have, and does not cause any acute, subacute or chronic harm to human health.
  2. Current status of food safety issues
  3. Food Safety Hazards:
  1. It seriously threatens the life safety and health of consumers and triggers a crisis of people's trust in food safety. Obtaining safe, nutritious and healthy food is the most basic right of consumers;
  2. Cause major economic losses to production and operation enterprises, and bring a heavy blow to the development of the industry
  3. Food safety issues are related to economic development and social stability
  1. Causes of food safety problems: Beneficiaries: ①Parties involved in counterfeiting; ②Public servants who enjoy administrative law enforcement rights; ③Departmental and local interest protectors. Specific reasons for food safety incidents are:
  1. The food safety awareness of the country and the people is weak;
  2. Chemical pollution, environmental pollution, biological toxins, etc. threaten the safe production of agricultural products, which is the source
  3. Integrity crisis and lack of social responsibility in the industry, profit-seeking, illegal production, operation, and circulation lead to the effect of "bad goods driving out good goods"
  4. Lack of government supervision
  • Natural social problems: natural disasters, which refer to social problems caused by forces beyond human control.
  • The nature of natural social problems: 1. potentiality; 2. suddenness; 3. limitation.
  • Harm of natural social problems
  • Prevention and treatment of social problems:
  • The nature of prevention and treatment of social problems

It is a comprehensive governance process that conducts scientific analysis of exposed or potential social problems, adopts corresponding countermeasures and means, avoids, reduces the occurrence of social problems or alleviates social problems. The connotation of this definition is:

  1. The purpose of prevention and control of social problems is to give early warning of potential social problems, and proceed from the actual situation to take corresponding policies and means in a targeted manner.
  2. There are social problems of various natures, and it is necessary to proceed from the actual situation and take corresponding prevention and control countermeasures and means in a targeted manner
  3. The means of preventing and treating social problems is not a single one, but a comprehensive use of various means
  4. The reliance on the prevention and treatment of social problems is the masses of the people and all positive factors in society;
  5. Social problems are related to the safety and stability of the family, and the leading force in the prevention and treatment of them in our country is the party and government and their relevant functional departments;
  6. Prevention and treatment of social problems is a process, which must be carried out in an organized, planned and step-by-step manner.
  • The significance of prevention and treatment of social problems
  1. Doing a good job of preventing and controlling social problems can effectively maintain social order and social stability, and enhance the sense of security of the society and the people
  2. Effective prevention and control of social problems can avoid and reduce the losses caused by social problems to society, including direct and indirect losses, material and spiritual losses
  3. Doing a good job in the prevention and treatment of social problems can guarantee the great cause of socialist modernization
  4. Doing a good job in the prevention and treatment of social problems can promote the construction of socialist spiritual civilization
  5. Doing a good job of preventing and treating social problems can improve the response capacity and efficiency of relevant institutions
  • Strategic Thoughts on Prevention and Control of Social Problems
  • Global thinking: The global thinking of social problem prevention and control is to investigate social problem prevention and control in a global environment .
  • Overall thinking: The strategic task of social problem prevention and control should be included in the national economic and social development plan.
  • Long-term thinking: We must recognize the long-term existence and repetition of social problems, and we must have the will and perseverance to fight for a long time
  • Strategic Measures to Prevent and Control Social Problems
  1. Liberate and develop productivity
  2. Reform the superstructure and ideology
  3. develop science and technology
  4. Improve the social system and alleviate worries
  5. Establish a social early warning system
  6. Give full play to the role of public opinion supervision
  • Strategic thinking and strategic measures for the prevention and treatment of social problems
  1. Prevention and treatment of social problems should be guided by strategic thinking
  1. global thinking. The global thinking of social problem prevention and treatment is to put the prevention and treatment of social problems in the global environment for investigation. The process of economic globalization and the connection of countries and regions in the world into a "global village" are inseparable, mutually influencing and restricting each other. The general trend is that there are fewer and fewer special social problems in a certain country and more and more global problems. Therefore, social issues must first be investigated in a global context, and it is easier to conduct international cooperation while taking into account the international environment.
  2. Overall thinking: Social issues are overall thinking, that is, the strategic task of social problem prevention and control should be included in the national economic and social development plan. The prevention and treatment of social problems is a measure to comprehensively measure the progress and development of a society. Only by taking the strategic task of preventing and treating social problems as an issue in the national economic and social development plan can we effectively prevent and control social problems and promote the realization of the overall goals of economic and social development.
  3. Long-term thinking: The long-term thinking of social problem prevention and treatment is to recognize the long-term existence and repetition of social problems, and to have the will and perseverance to fight protractedly. Social problems are a reflection of the unbalanced relationship between individuals and society, and are accompanied by basic social contradictions. There is a trend of ebb and flow. First, social problems are difficult to withdraw from the historical stage; second, some social problems are eliminated under certain conditions. However, as soon as there is a climate, it will revive again; the third is that social problems may arise in the process of social progress.
  1. The prevention and treatment of social problems must be carried out in various ways and by adopting various strategic measures
  1. Emancipation and development of productive forces: the fundamental way to alleviate and solve my country's contemporary social problems is to emancipate and develop productive forces
  2. Reform the superstructure and ideology: While we are reforming and improving the economic system and structure, we must reform the incompatible superstructure and ideology.
  3. Developing science and technology: The prevention and control of social problems requires corresponding science and technology. Structural social problems and deviant social problems need scientific and technological guidance and assistance. This is especially true for natural neighborhood committee problems.
  4. Improve the social security system to ease worries
  5. Establish a social early warning system: The social early warning system is not only the need for the prevention and treatment of social problems, but also the need for social problem governance. The social early warning system includes investigation and research institutions, monitoring systems, social intervention centers, social support networks, social security systems, and warning education systems.
  6. Give full play to the role of public opinion supervision: Newspapers, radio, news agencies, television stations, etc. are the carriers of mass communication and important tools for public opinion supervision.

Chapter Fourteen Social Change

  • what is social change
  • The Meaning and Characteristics of Social Change
  • The concept of social change: It is the variation of the basic form of the relationship between the individual and society . (Contains four categories of content:)
  1. The basic system of social relations: that is, the basic normative system of social industries
  2. The basic structure of society: including organizational structure, class structure, occupational structure
  3. Basic aspects of social relations: the way people live and behave
  4. Man and nature: the environment and the safety and sustainable development of human activity systems
  • The characteristics of social change: inevitability, progress, non-linear (wave), comprehensive
  • Basic Types of Social Change
  • Social Progress and Social Regression
  1. Social progress: refers to the regular movement of human society from a low level to a high level, and the replacement of social forms is the process of social progress.
  2. Social regression: It is a process in which a part or the whole of society changes from a higher development stage that has been reached to a lower development stage.
  • Social Reform and Social Revolution
  1. Social reform: It is a process of local social adjustment or overall improvement that people consciously plan and realize in a relatively short period of time.
  2. Social revolution: It is a form of social change that radically transforms the entire society.
  • overall change and partial change
  1. Overall change: It is the change of the whole social system and the result of the combined force of changes in various social elements. The replacement of social forms belongs to the overall change.
  2. Partial changes: changes in social elements and their interrelationships. Such as changes in the economic system, political system and cultural system.
  • Spontaneous and planned changes
  1. Spontaneous change: Refers to passive participation or blind compliance with social change.
  2. Planned change: refers to the conscious and purposeful participation of human beings in social change . The main form of modern social change is the planned social change in which human beings participate.
  • Reasons for social change (brief statement)
  1. The growth of social productive forces and the contradictory movement of productive forces and production relations
  2. Conflict between material needs and interests of society
  3. Invention and creation of science and technology: William Ogburn emphasized the role of technological invention in social change, so he was called the representative of "technical determinism".
  4. Development and Spread of Culture
  5. change of concept
  6. Demographic change
  7. Alien invasion, environmental damage, natural disasters, etc.
  • planned social change
  • The nature of planned social change: Planned social change is, in essence, to intervene in the social operation process and exert a directional influence on the social system. (way:)
  1. Coordinate the relationship between individual needs, collective needs and social needs
  2. development of reasonable needs
  3. deter unreasonable needs
  4. Controlling the type and extent of stimuli
  5. weaken some needs
  • Social development plan: The social development plan is the assumption of the general direction, major goals, main steps and major measures of social development. Since 1981, the "National Economic Development Plan" has been changed to "National Economic and Social Development Plan" , which shows that the planning work is more complete, more advanced, more in-depth, detailed and extensive than before.
  • social modernization
  • The connotation and characteristics of social modernization
  • The Connotation of Social Modernization

Social modernization refers to the process of transition from traditional agricultural society to modern industrial society. It is based on social differentiation, guided by scientific and technological progress, with industrialization, urbanization, democratization and knowledge-based as the main content. The process of social change in the coordinated development of society.

Subsystems: 1. Industrialization (in the process of social modernization, economic modernization plays an important role. Economic modernization can be measured by the application of science and technology in production, the improvement of mechanization and automation, and the growth of gross national product, etc. , and the key lies in industrialization ); 2. Urbanization; 3. Democratization; 4. Management bureaucracy; 5. Social structure differentiation; 6. Human modernization;

7. The secularization of lifestyle

  • Features of social modernization:
  1. Social modernization is a revolutionary process in the social field (6 basic connotations:)
  1. Two social transitions from agricultural society to industrial society and from industrial society to knowledge society
  2. Continuous improvement of social productivity and quality of life
  3. Profound changes in lifestyle and attitudes
  4. Substantial improvement of national culture and health quality
  5. Fundamental improvement of domestic social welfare and social equity
  6. Changes in the status of the international community
  1. Social modernization is a long-term historical process with stages
  2. Social modernization is a continuous international competition
  • social modern theory
  • Classical modernization theory: It is a general term for the theoretical achievements formed after World War II with the modernization process of western developed countries as the research object. (claims are:)
  1. Use the "traditional-modern" dichotomy to divide social types, and think that modernization is the process of transforming from traditional society to modern society
  2. The impetus for modernization comes from within society
  3. Convergence hypothesis, becoming a developing country will also gradually transform into a modern society
  • Dependency theory: The independent developing countries that emerged after World War II did not achieve modernization as the classic modernization theory said, either underdeveloped or heavily dependent on developed countries (viewpoint:)
  1. The development of a society should be examined from the perspective of the world system, rather than a society as the unit of analysis
  2. Analysis of the current situation of social development should pay attention to the analysis of external factors
  3. According to the standard of "centre-periphery" to divide the country types, western developed countries are at the center and developing countries are at the periphery.
  4. Developing countries should get rid of their dependence on developed countries if they want to achieve development
  • World system theory: It emerged in the 1970s, represented by American sociologist Wallerstein.
  1. The dependence of developed countries and developing countries on quality inspection is two-way
  2. Divide the world system into three levels: "center", "semi-periphery" and "periphery"
  3. The world system theory points out that the current world system is changing, and the three-level structure of the world system is not static
  • "Information Society Theory": In 1980, French Jean-Jacques Servan -Schreiber wrote "The World is Facing Challenges" based on the results of the small-scale research in Paris, American scholar Toffler's "The Third Wave" and the American The "Megatrends" written by the scholar Naisbitt is a representative work on the systematic discussion of the information society. " Information Society Theory" believes that it is an important turning point for human society to enter the information society from the industrial society. (Three main features:)
  1. Information has become a resource for combat readiness and plays a major role in the national economy
  2. Based on the whole society, the growth of value mainly depends on knowledge
  3. Advanced communication and information systems have become a means of social reform, bringing about a change in people's way of life and work
  • “后工业社会论”：由美国社会学家丹尼尔・贝尔在《后工业社会的来临》（五个特征：）
  1. 经济方面从产品经济转变为服务性经济
  2. 专业与技术人员处于主导地位
  3. 理论知识处于社会中心地位
  4. 控制技术发展，对技术进行鉴定
  5. 创造新的“智能技术”
  • 中国的社会现代化
  • 现代化起步阶段（1840-1911）
  • 局部现代化阶段（1912-1949）：1911年辛亥革命的爆发，预示着中国进入局部现代化阶段
  • 全面现代化探索期（1949-1977）
  • 全面现代化发展期（1978年到今）
  • 全球化
  • 全球代的涵义
  • 全球化的涵义：指在全球范围内那个人涉及政治、经济、文化、社会等各个领域的客观历史进程和趋势，同时也是世界共同体的各个国家和地区等彼此之间的交行和交换关系进一步加强、彼此之间的储存性、关联性程度不断加强的过程。
  • 全球化的特征
  1. 全球化是一个客观的历史进程
  2. 全球化是一个多维度的过程
  3. 全球化是世界各国的共同性与差异性相统一的客观要求
  4. 全球化过程是一个不断出现矛盾和冲突的过程
  • 全球化的发展阶段及其特征
  • 全球化的发展阶段
  1. 萌芽阶段：15世纪末期-18世纪中期
  2. 开始阶段：18世纪中期-19世纪70年代
  3. 起飞阶段：19世纪70年代-20世纪60年代中期
  4. 增强阶段：20世纪60年代至今
  • 当前全球化的表现
  1. 金融全球化日益凸显
  2. 以跨国公司为主导的经济全球化
  3. 交通与通讯的全球化
  4. 政治的多极化
  5. 文化多元化
  • 全球化的理论争论（围绕全球化产生的争议主要有：）
  1. 全球化真的发生了吗？
  2. 全球化将会导致社会的趋同吗？
  3. 全球化是否削弱了民族国家的主权？
  4. 全球性与现代性有本质的区别吗？
  5. 全球文化是否正在形成？
  • 全球化与中国
  • 全球化对中国的冲击和挑战
  1. 中国经济增长过于依赖贸易
  2. 在政治方面，由于中国是社会主义国家，经济的调整增长动摇了西方霸权的地位，引起它们的恐慌
  3. 随着中国对全球化参与程度的加深，中国的文化建设受到了两方面的挑战。一是西方意识形态对马克思主义指导地位的挑战；二是西方一些腐朽文化对中国传统文化的冲击。
  4. In terms of national security, there are still factors affecting world peace such as hegemonism and strong economic politics. The international security environment we are facing is not very optimistic.
  • Coping Strategies for Globalization
  1. It is necessary to clarify China's position in the process of globalization as a prerequisite for formulating a global strategy
  2. We must constantly emancipate our minds, deepen reforms, and develop our own
  3. Enhance comprehensive national strength to ensure national security
  4. We must actively integrate into the trend of globalization with an objective and pragmatic spirit, seize opportunities, actively promote the cause of socialist modernization, and promote the advent of a more fair and equal era of globalization

おすすめ

転載: blog.csdn.net/qq_67692062/article/details/132091232
おすすめ
ランキング
求1到10的阶乘相加值
除数無限のアルゴリズムので、
いいえ公共、オープンプラットフォームとマイクロチャネル公共プラットフォームを微信ありません
ログの形式でSQL出力
アンドリュースORMフレームワークの基本的な使用GreenDao
MySQL基础教程13——函数——流程控制函数
Go build构建包
LeetCode刷题——排序链表#148#Medium
Python difflib の使用
カール送信httpリクエスト
アーカイブ
もっと
2024-06-13(0)
2024-06-12(0)
2024-06-11(0)
2024-06-10(0)
2024-06-09(0)
2024-06-08(0)
2024-06-07(0)
2024-06-06(0)
2024-06-05(0)
2024-06-04(0)

コードワールド

© 2018 codetd.com