社会学概论(笔记)

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 第一章 社会学的创立与发展

第一节 社会学的创立

  • 社会学创立的历史条件
  • 社会变革的需要：社会学产生的直接根源和关键因素是社会变革的需要
  • 自然科学发展的推动
  • 社会经验研究的积累
  • 社会研究先驱奠定的社会思想基础
  • 社会学创立时期的主要代表
  • 奥古斯特・孔德：“社会学之父”,1838年在《实证哲学教程》是首次提出社会学这一概念；是实证主义的权威代表。
  1. 孔德的社会学思想：
  1. 科学的分类:社会学是科学的最高层次(在圣西门的科学分类的基础上：数学、天文学、物理学、化学、生物学、社会学)；
  2. 社会学的研究对象:孔德把社会学分为社会动力学和社会静力学
  3. 研究方法:用实证方法来研究人类社会。孔德认为必须用研究自然界的实证方法来研究人类社会从中发现客观自在的社会规律。“了解以便预测，预测以便控制”，孔德创造的实证方法是观察法、实验法、比较法和历史法。孔德在《实证哲学精辟》一书中解释实证的五个涵义：
  • 现实的而不是幻想的
  • 有用的而不是无用的
  • 可靠的而不是可疑的
  • 确切的而不是含糊的
  • 肯定的而不是否定的
  1. 孔德对社会学的贡献：在于他在科学分类中提出了建立社会学的构想，明确了从整体角度研究社会的秩序和进步，提出了社会学研究的实证主义和四种基本研究方法。
  • 卡尔・马克思
  1. 马克思是社会学的主要奠基人
  2. 马克思创立了社会学的基础理论
  3. 马克思的社会学理论注重实际
  • Herbert Spencer : He believes that society is an organism just like living things, but society is not a simple organism but a "superorganism" . Spencer is a famous British bourgeois sociologist, philosopher and educator, known as "Aristotle of Victorian England". Representative works include: "Social Statics", "Sociological Research", "Principles of Sociology"
  1. social organism theory
  2. social evolution
  • The main representative of the formative period of sociology
  • Emile Durkheim (France): France and the first person in Europe to teach sociology at a university . Three discussions on "On the Division of Labor in Society", "Code of Sociological Method", "On Suicide" ("On Suicide" is an example of Durkheim using one social fact to explain another social fact); Durkheim's social The sociological perspectives include the object of study in sociology, the theory of social solidarity, the theory of anomie, the principles of sociological research methods, the methods of functional analysis and historical analysis
  1. Objects of Sociology The so-called social facts are ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of people themselves, and are imposed on each individual through a coercive force. Social facts have the characteristics of priority, externality, objectivity and compulsion. It is emphasized that the coercion of social facts on individuals is not only an external coercion, but also a coercion realized in an internalized way.
  2. Social Solidarity Theory: A state of social connection characterized by attraction that coordinates, cooperates, and unites individuals with individuals, individuals with groups, and groups with groups. "Collective consciousness" (divided into two types: "mechanical solidarity" and "organic solidarity". The transition from traditional society to modern society is the society from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity)
  3. Anomie theory: a social state in which the regulation of individual desires and behaviors by society lacks uniform norms and sufficient constraints. Durkheim believes that the existence and development of anomie is not conducive to the stability and development of society. Durkheim's research aims to seek the power and ways of exercising control over individuals. Causes of social anomie:

(1) Personal desires are rapidly growing in modern social institutions

(2) Modern society cannot satisfy everyone's individual desires

(3) Sudden changes in society make individual desires lose their social binding force, causing crises and turmoil in society

  1. Guidelines for Research Methods in Sociology
  1. The first and most fundamental maxim is to study social facts as objects
  2. Sociology should abandon the kind of research that takes the abstract social whole as the object, and take the specific social content, elements and different aspects as the research object;
  3. The approach of "explaining social facts in terms of social facts" must be followed. The book "On Suicide" is his example of using one social fact (social integration) to explain another social fact (suicide)
  4. Note the distinction between normal (universal) and pathological (non-universal) phenomena
  5. Comparative method is the most fundamental method of sociology
  1. Functional Analysis and Historical Analysis Methods: The systematic method of sociological functional analysis reasoning was created by Durkheim, who clearly distinguished between historical and functional modes of inquiry, between functional outcomes and individual motivations.
  • Max Weber : (German) "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", "Economy and Society "
  1. Understanding Sociology: The research object of sociology is social action, social action is the interaction and common action of actors who take actions to influence another person or more people. Specifically, it is manifested in social customs, social control, social problems and social needs. The fundamental approach to the study of social action is understanding.
  2. Types of social action: Rationality is the core concept of Weber’s theory of society. Starting from this, he organized social action into four types: ① Purpose-means rational action; ② Value rational action; ③ Emotional action; ④ traditional action
  3. Ideal Type: In order to avoid the individualized and specialized research methods of the German School of Humanities and History, Weber proposed a key conceptual tool - the ideal type. Ideal types do not refer to moral ideals, nor do they refer to average states. The ideal type contains the meaning of emphasizing the typical action process. On the one hand, as a conceptual tool for intellectual construction, it is highly generalized and abstract, so it is different from empirical facts; on the other hand, as a conceptual tool for investigating reality, It is also a generalization and abstraction based on empirical facts, so it has the function of making oneself divorced from reality and then to understand reality.
  4. The theory of bureaucracy (later)

Section 2 Main Theoretical Schools of Sociology

  • Chicago School: Sociology originated in Europe, but the world's first sociology department was established in the United States . Major academic achievements of the Chicago School:
  1. The Chicago School pioneered the study of modern urban communities
  2. The Theory of the City of the Humanities District
  3. The Chicago School Promoted the Perfection of Sociological Survey Research Methods
  4. Symbolic Interactionism
  • Structural-functionalism: It emerged in the 1930s, during the period of the world economic crisis, and the representatives were Parsons and Merton. Structural-functionalism focuses on how social equilibrium is maintained and continuously restored. According to structural-functionalism, society is first and foremost a whole.
  1. Parsons believes that if any society wants to survive, it must have the general conditions necessary to maintain the system: ①adaptation:; ②achievement; ③integration; ④dimensional model
  2. Merton: Social Theory and Social Structure offers a more flexible approach to functional analysis.
  • Conflict theory: Conflict theory originates from Marx's social thought, and Marx's theory of class struggle is considered to be the earliest, deepest and most thorough theory of conflict.
  1. Lewis A. Coser : Functional Conflict Theory . "The Social Function of Conflict" Social conflict not only has the negative function of destruction, but also has the positive function.
  2. 达伦多夫：辩证冲突论。《工业社会的阶级和阶级矛盾》。达伦多夫认为，“我们称作社会分层的不平等体系，只不过是社会权力结构的派生物”这属于社会分层理论的冲突论。
  • 交换理论：
  1. 霍曼斯：交换理论是美国社会学家霍曼斯所建立的。人类的相互交往和社会联合都是一种交换行为，经济学的交换原则可以推广到一切社会行为，人们的互动可以被理解为酬赏的交换，一个人如何行动取决于其行动所能得到的酬赏或可能招致的惩罚。缺陷：只看到个人交换行为的心理方面，只讲交换行为建造社会结构，而没有看到社会结构对交换行为的影响。
  2. 布劳：《社会生活中的交换与权力》交换常常是在资源和权力分配的不平等基础上展开的。
  • 符号互动论：起源于乔治・赫伯特・米德，美国社会学家库利、托马斯和米德等人的符号互动论的早期代表，主要代表人物有：赫伯特・布鲁默、欧文・戈夫曼。基本观点：人类的互动是以符号为中介的，对共享的符号的理解是社会互动的基础。
  • 社会批判理论：法兰克福学派所主张的理论道路。有三个方面的理解：
  1. 法兰克福学派相信资本主义制度正在使得人们逐渐失去了批判社会的能力
  2. 法兰克福学派认为在社会研究领域存在同样的问题，特别是反映在实证主义社会学的研究取向上
  3. 法兰克福学派的局限性：没有找到真正解决资本主义根本出路，从而陷入历史发展的悲观主义情绪。
  • 当代社会学理论的代表人物
  1. Alfred Schutz: Deeply influenced by phenomenological philosophy, he founded phenomenological sociology . His representative works include "Phenomenology of the Social World" and "Structure of the Living World". He emphasized the intersubjective characteristics of the everyday world , the world is "ours" rather than "mine"; the social world is a system in an objective sense, but a meaning shared by capable subjects.
  2. Michel Foucault: Madness and Civilization, Words and Things, Discipline and Punishment, A History of Sexuality
  3. Anthony Giddens : The Constitution of Society, Nation-State and Violence, Consequences of Presentity, The Third Way. Giddens tried to overcome the theoretical dilemma between determinism and volitionism that overemphasizes action, and believed that social structure is produced and reproduced through people's actions. On the one hand, social structure does restrict people's behavior, but on the other hand People can also actively act on and react to social structures in their daily activities, so the theory is called structural theory.
  4. Jurgen Habermas: "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere", "Science and Technology as Ideology", "The Crisis of Legitimacy", "The Theory of Communicative Action"
  5. Pierre Bourdieu: Outline of Theory of Practice, Segmentation, National Elite, Practice and Reflection

Section 3 One Hundred Years of Chinese Sociology

  • The historical conditions for the introduction of sociology to China:
  1. A group of outstanding intellectuals such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, Yan Fu, Zhang Taiyan (Zhang Binglin) were amazed at their governance system and strategies when they came into contact with Western theories
  2. The scholar who put forward the name of "Sociology" in the book "Benevolence" is: Tan Sitong
  3. The one who set up "Group Learning" in Wanmu Thatched Cottage in Changxing, Guangzhou is: Kang Youwei
  • The Establishment of the Disciplinary Status of Early Sociology in China
  • Team and Institutional Construction: Western Missionaries, Study Abroad Personnel, and Translated Works
  1. Sociology Team Formation
  2. Institutionalization of schooling
  3. Establishment of academic societies
  4. Publication of periodicals and monographs
  • The rise of social surveys
  1. Early Autonomous Social Inquiry
  2. Field investigation of Chinese sociologists' new horizons
  • The Introduction and Practice of Marxist Sociology
  1. "Sociology is a science"
  2. Investigation and Research of Chinese Marxists
  • Faculty adjustment and withdrawal of Sociology
  • Maintenance and Revocation: The Reasons Why Chinese Sociology Was Retired
  1. Copy the Soviet model         
  2. own misunderstanding
  • Rehash and Doom
  • Restoration and Reconstruction of Chinese Sociology
  • Rectification of name: In December 1978, the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee created a favorable external environment for the restoration and reconstruction of Chinese sociology. From February 15th to 18th, 1979, the Preparatory Office of the National Philosophy and Social Science Planning Conference held a "Sociological Symposium" in Beijing to jointly discuss the recovery and reconstruction of sociology. Learn to rectify names.
  • The theory of "five viscera and six internal organs" is Fei Xiaotong's terminology borrowed from traditional Chinese medicine as a metaphor for the construction of sociology.
  1. Five internal organs: academic organizations, professional research institutions, sociology departments of universities, library and reference centers, and publications.
  2. Liu Fu (six basic courses): Introduction to Sociology, Social Survey Research Methods, Social Psychology, Urban and Rural Sociology (Introduction to Community), Cultural Anthropology, and Foreign Social Theories.
  • effect
  • The localization of Chinese sociology: As the organizer and leader of the restoration and reconstruction of social sciences, Fei Xiaotong proposed to build China's own sociology at the beginning, and then proposed to establish a sociology with Chinese characteristics. In May 1982, Fei Xiaotong's speech "Some Opinions on Establishing Sociology in China" at the annual meeting of the Chinese Sociological Association clearly proposed the establishment of "a discipline guided by Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, closely integrated with China's reality, Sociology Serving Socialist Construction" . The basic approach to realize the localization of sociology:
  1. We should take Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of "Three Represents" and the Scientific Outlook on Development as our guides for action, and earnestly carry out research on social phenomena.
  2. The basic task of sociology is to study the coordinated development of economy and society and the socialization of people
  3. Based on the reality of Chinese society, adhere to the integration of theory with practice, combine macro and micro, theoretical research and empirical research, so that sociological research can effectively serve the cause of socialist construction in our country
  4. Adopt a positive attitude, make innovations on the basis of learning from the excellent achievements of foreign sociology and Chinese sociology in the past, gradually establish a theoretical knowledge system of Chinese sociology, and form a Chinese sociology school
  5. Create a team of sociology professionals who are willing and able to fight for this

Chapter 2 Sociological Research Methods

Section 1 The research object, characteristics and functions of sociology

  • object of study in sociology

Sociology : A social science that studies the relationship between individuals and society.

  1. The word sociology was first proposed by Auguste Comte, who believed that sociology is the science of studying society
  2. Durkheim: sociology the science of social facts
  3. Weber: Sociology is the science of social action
  4. Sorokin: Sociology is the science of social relations
  5. Georg Simmel : Sociology is a social science that studies the relationship between the individual and society . "Sociology-Research on the Forms of Socialization" "Basic Issues of Sociology: Individuals and Society", he opposed positivism, believed that society is a real existence independent of individuals, and also opposed the abstract and only The existence of the individual is the real point of view, and the unity of the society and the individual is advocated. In 1908 and 1917, he published two books, "Sociology—A Study on the Form of Socialization" and "Basic Problems of Sociology: Individual and Society", which profoundly discussed and studied the interaction between individual and society. relation.
  • Features of Sociology :
  1. Holistic : Sociology examines and analyzes the relationship between individuals and society from a holistic perspective. This integrity is the most basic feature determined by the founders of sociology and insisted on by later generations. The most important perspective of the so-called sociological imagination is integrity.
  2. Comprehensiveness : two meanings:
  1. Compared with political science, economics, law and other disciplines, society does not specialize in the study of a social phenomenon, but studies the relationship between individuals and society in all social phenomena, which is not available in other disciplines.
  2. The comprehensiveness of sociology is also reflected in its search for regularity from the general connections of various social phenomena.
  1. Empirical: After sociology has become an independent discipline, it always takes the empirical knowledge obtained from social survey research as the basis for the development of the discipline .
  2. Applicability:
  1. The knowledge of sociology is very close to social life. It is practiced and experienced by people in daily life. Mastering sociology can help people use sociology to understand and analyze public problems in social life more consciously.
  2. Sociology focuses on the practical problems in social life, and is also the concern of all members of society
  3. The theories, methods and research results of sociology can be used not only by the government, but also by groups and ordinary people
  • The function of sociology: After sociology was restored and rebuilt, Fei Xiaotong said: I think the most fundamental task of sociology is to solve the problem of how a person living in society learns to be a human being. This refers to the educational function of sociology.
  • Research functions: descriptive function, explanatory function, predictive function, normative function
  1. Descriptive functions: Refers to those exploratory studies conducted to understand and grasp what happened and what happened . Its purpose is to ascertain and describe in detail the specific laws of the occurrence and change of social things and phenomena;
  2. Explanatory function: refers to the process of explaining the subjective and objective factors that affect the occurrence and change of social facts from their causal connection; "why"
  3. Predictive function: to remind future social events and status;
  4. Normative function: It is the process of determining social goals and the actions and means adopted to achieve the predetermined goals, and evaluating the rationality and feasibility of social goals, actions and means. Sociological research should also answer the question of "what should be" on the basis of answering "what will be".
  • Educational functions: 1. Help people complete socialization consciously; 2. Help people choose rationally
  • Social management functions: 1. Establish norms; 2. Provide models; 3. Feedback information
  • The function of social criticism: Another aspect of sociology's participation in society is to expose old ideas, old concepts, and things and behaviors that hinder social progress, conduct theoretical analysis in a realistic manner, and put forward opinions and suggestions to overcome and solve problems.

Section 2 Methodology of Sociological Research

  • The main issues discussed in the meaning of sociological research methodology:
  1. the nature of social phenomena;
  2. Sociological research methods and basic assumptions;
  3. The Role of Value in Social Research
  • Positivist methodology: refers to the theory of methods that follow the laws of nature and use universal causal laws to study social phenomena; represented by Comte's "Course in Positive Philosophy"; and matured through Durkheim's "Code of Sociological Method". The basic viewpoints of positivist methodology:
  1. Both social phenomena and natural phenomena exist objectively, and the laws of natural science are also applicable to the study of social phenomena
  2. The purpose of science is to explain the causality of phenomena, and on this basis to predict the future development trend of phenomena
  3. Advocate for empirical research and social investigation
  4. Statistically oriented, with particular emphasis on quantitative research methods
  • Humanistic methodology: also known as anti-positivist methodology; representatives: William Dilthey and Max Weber . They believe that people have free will, and they must not follow the methods of natural sciences to study social sciences, but can only use humanistic research methods. Basic point of view:
  1. Emphasize the difference between natural science and social science. It is believed that natural science is to explore the general laws of nature, while social science is to explain the connection of individual and specific things in society. It is non-repeatable and has no general laws;
  2. The purpose of sociological theoretical research is to "understand" rather than "explain"
  3. It is believed that sociological research should be based on the micro level, starting from everyday and ordinary things, and studying the explanations made by human beings to social phenomena and the meanings given to them, rather than simply reducing to the level of natural laws.
  • Marxist Sociological Methodology: Basic Viewpoints:
  1. recognize objective social laws
  2. Society is constantly developing and changing, and the social process is the result of the interaction between people
  3. Historical materialism, emphasizing the historical practice of human beings, paying attention to the social and material environment that restricts human actions
  • Main schools of contemporary sociological methodology:
  • Post-positivism: Popper's falsification theory; Kuhn's "scientific revolution theory" and "paradigm theory"
  1. Acknowledging the historicity, pluralism, development and relativity of theory
  2. Various methods in social science research have rationality and limitations, and the diversity of methods is recognized, and research methods are determined by specific topics
  3. Emphasize the quantitative processing of data in the dimension of social life
  4. Emphasize a "value-free" research that ignores or downplays the underlying assumptions and values ​​of those who conduct such scientific research.
  • New Humanism: In the late 1980s, it was also called New Weberism. Norbert Elias' "Sign Theory" pointed out that signs are not abstract and static, and the formation of signs is the product of the combination of biological, social and personal processes.
  • Critical hermeneutic theory: Gadamer's "Truth and Method" is known as a milestone in "examining truth from the perspective of historical hermeneutics".
  1. Emphasize reflection and criticism, and constantly transform the imperfections of the existing society
  2. Emphasis on reaching consensus through "non-forced communication"
  • Postmodernism: A philosophical trend formed in the field of culture and literature in the 1980s. The main points:
  1. Against the distinction between subject and object of research
  2. Oppose the modern scientific view of time and space, and oppose the existing understanding of time and space and history with a holistic view
  3. against modern science's view of truth
  4. Against the Dualism of Appearance and Essence
  5. against ontology

Section 3 Sociological Research Methods and Methods

  • Statistical survey: It is a statistical work process of collecting data and information in a planned and organized manner according to the purpose and requirements of the survey, using scientific survey methods.

Principles to be observed in statistical investigations:

  1. The principle of accuracy requires seeking truth from facts and truthfully reflecting the situation
  2. The principle of timeliness, timely reflection and timely forecast
  3. The principle of completeness, numbers and circumstances should be combined.
  • General survey: also known as comprehensive survey, referred to as census. It is a one-time or periodic overall survey specially organized for a specific purpose (two methods: 1. Establish a special census agency; 2. Use the original records and accounting data of the survey unit)

1. Principles of the census:

  1. It is necessary to uniformly specify the standard time point to which the survey data belong
  2. Correctly determine the investigation period, choose the registration time, and complete it in the shortest possible time
  3. Strict screening of survey items with clear definitions
  4. The census should be carried out in a certain cycle as much as possible, so as to study the development trend and period regularity of the phenomenon

          2. Advantages and disadvantages of the census

  1. Advantages: It is relatively simple to determine the survey object, the information is comprehensive and systematic, and the data is generally more accurate
  2. Disadvantages: heavy workload, strong timeliness, complex organization, limited investigation content, prone to repetition and omission
  • Sample survey : 
  1. Meaning: It is a kind of non-comprehensive survey. It is a survey method that selects a part of units from the whole according to a certain method for survey, and makes estimates and judgments.
  2. Category: Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling
  3. Probability characteristics: ① Select samples according to the random principle; ② Each unit in the population has an equal probability of being selected; ③ A certain probability can be used to ensure that the error is controlled within the specified range
  • Statistical report: It is a report system with a legal nature and provides basic statistical data from top to bottom in accordance with the uniformly stipulated form, uniform reporting procedures and report time.
  • Questionnaire
  1. The meaning of questionnaire survey: it is a method to obtain relevant and effective information with a set of questions . American sociologist Al Babi said: Questionnaires are the backbone of social surveys
  2. Content: personal basic situation, behavior and attitude in three aspects;
  3. Main types: self-filling and substitute filling
  • Field research: In the 1920s and 1930s, British anthropologist Malinowski creatively applied in practice and made outstanding contributions, developing field observation and thinking in daily life into a science and technology, Call it field research .
  • The meaning of field research: also known as field investigation; it is a research method that goes deep into the subject, collects data by means of participatory observation and unstructured interview, and uses these data to conduct qualitative analysis and explain social phenomena . The field research method is a sociological research method that emphasizes being on the scene, integrating into the society, and "melting into one" with the researcher.
  • Case study: a method that takes a social unit or case as a whole and conducts a detailed examination
  • typical survey
  1. Among the research objects, it is a research method that consciously selects individual or a small number of representative typical social units for in-depth and careful on-the-spot investigation and research to infer the overall investigation.
  2. Selection of typical surveys: (1) advanced; (2) intermediate; (3) backward.
  3. Pros and cons of typical surveys:

(1) Advantages: less manpower and material resources can be used to conduct more in-depth research on things in a shorter period of time

(2) Insufficiency: Typical choices are easily induced by subjective consciousness, the obtained data are difficult to standardize, and the objectivity and universality of the conclusions are easily questioned

  • Interview and Observation:
  1. Interview method: refers to the method in which the researcher conducts investigations and collects data by talking with the researched in a planned and purposeful manner. There are structured interviews and unstructured interviews.
  1. Structured interviews: conduct interviews with a highly structured or standardized survey outline, with a clear scope, and the data obtained are easy to organize and analyze, such as public opinion surveys;
  2. Unstructured interviews do not use or use simple survey outlines, but only raise some open and relatively general questions around the theme. Respondents can fully express their opinions and provide more extensive and in-depth information, but it is more difficult to organize and analyze. difficulty.
  1. Observation: The perceptual process in which researchers use the senses to observe objects or phenomena in a planned and purposeful manner.

Classification of Observational Methods:

  1. Participatory observation: refers to the method in which the researcher places himself in the environment and social activities of the observed object to a certain extent, strives to make himself truly connected with the researched group, and directly obtains data through personal experience and observation. One of the founders of participatory observation: Malinowski's "Navigation in the Western Pacific"
  2. Non-participant observation: refers to the method in which the researcher always keeps a certain distance from the observed person, that is, as an "outsider" and relies on his own perception to obtain information.
  3. The characteristics of observation method: ① naturalness; ② directness; ③ extensiveness;
  4. Advantages of the observation method: ① First-hand information can be obtained directly; ② Detailed and reliable residences can be obtained with the help of on-site, recording, photographing and other auxiliary means; ③ Especially suitable for research objects without language communication skills;
  5. Disadvantages of the observation method: ① High requirements, difficult to achieve; ② Difficult to control environmental time variables, which brings difficulties to quantitative analysis and statistical judgment; ③ Easily affected by the value concept and emotional factors of the observer, which is easy to cause loss and damage to the collected data negative impact, etc.;
  • Experimental Method:
  • The concept and type of experimental method:
  1. Concept: The experimental method is based on certain research assumptions, under controlled conditions, through observation, recording and analysis, to discover or confirm the causal relationship between variables or social phenomena.
  2. Types of experiments:
  1. According to the test environment, it is divided into: field experiment, laboratory experiment
  2. According to the experimental method, it is divided into: standard experiment, quasi-experiment, control experiment, double-blind experiment
  • The role of experimentation
  1. Judge the causal relationship between social phenomena or variables through experiments, and put forward new hypotheses for a certain theory;
  2. Discover new facts that were previously unknown and unexplained through experiments, and establish new theories
  • Advantages and disadvantages of social experiments
  • Differences between sociological experiments and natural science experiments
  1. The object of the experiment is small groups and human activities, not objects, and the experimenter and the experimentee will interact with each other
  2. The subject of research is social phenomena or human attitudes, behavioral characteristics, rather than natural phenomena;
  3. The conditions and measures of the experiment are difficult to control, firstly, the experimental object is difficult to control; secondly, the situation is difficult to control
  • Documentation method: also known as document method, program method and non-intervention research method.
  • The meaning of the literature method and the source of the literature: it does not directly compare the research object to the need for information, but collects existing literature in the form of text, numbers, symbols, voice, pictures, etc., without affecting the research object. Methods of analyzing and exploring the phenomena of personal and social relationships . Document sources: official documents, personal documents, mass media.
  • Advantages and disadvantages of literature method:

Advantages: (1) The data information remains unchanged (2) The cost is low (3) It can study historical phenomena (4) It is suitable for vertical and horizontal analysis

Disadvantages: (1) The objective authenticity of many documents is difficult to verify (2) Due to privacy and confidentiality restrictions, relevant materials are not easy to obtain (3) Some documents lack standardized information, making it difficult to catalog and compare and analyze

Section 4 General Procedures and Analysis Types of Sociological Research

  • General Program in Sociological Studies
  • Planning stage:
  1. Select a research topic: innovative, moderate, and operable;
  2. Preliminary exploration: Preliminary exploration, collecting relevant literature and materials, contacting research objects, so as to "have a bottom in mind"
  3. Establish research hypotheses : establish research hypotheses, make theoretical explanations, and clarify concepts
  4. Formulate the research plan : generally include clarifying the research content, purpose and significance, selecting the survey site, determining the survey objects and research units (individuals, groups, organizations and communities, etc.), determining the research methods and methods, formulating questionnaires, scales and interviews Outline, prepare survey tools, coordinate and budget research funds.
  5. Organizational work : including the composition and training of researchers, and communication with collaborating units, etc.
  • Implementation phase
  • Summary stage (analyzing data and writing reports)
  • Types of Analysis in Sociological Research
  • Qualitative analysis:
  1. It is an analysis method to summarize, classify and compare the collected data, and then summarize the nature and characteristics of a certain type of phenomenon ;
  2. Main sources of qualitative information: field sources, literature sources

Three steps: (1) data review; (2) data classification; (3) data collection and editing

  1. The Significance and Insufficiency of Qualitative Analysis Method.
  • Quantitative analysis:
  1. It is a method to analyze the quantitative characteristics, quantitative relationship and quantitative changes of social phenomena.
  2. Schools and Representatives of Quantitative Analysis
  3. The source and collation of quantitative analysis data

The purpose of quantitative analysis data summary:

(1) Preliminary understanding of the distribution of data

(2) Compile the frequency distribution table for preparation

(3) Prepare for in-depth statistical analysis

(4) Easy to save survey data

  1. Software system for quantitative analysis
  • The relationship between qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis

1. Differences: (1) different emphases; (2) different bases; (3) different means; (4) different subject bases;

(5) The conclusions are expressed differently

Chapter 3 Society and Culture

Section 1 What is society

  • The meaning and characteristics of society
  • The meaning of society: it is the sum of various social relations generated in the interaction of people; the two major schools of society: realism and nominalism.
  1. Realism: It is believed that society is not only a collection of individuals, but also an objectively existing entity with its own law of development;
  2. Nominalism: It is believed that society is only a collective name, not an entity, and that only individuals truly exist objectively.
  • Characteristics of society:
  1. The society takes people as the main body: people are the most basic elements of the social relationship system and the pioneers of social life.
  2. Society is based on people's material production activities
  3. Society is linked by people-to-people communication
  4. Society comes from nature and is different from nature
  • Social Structure Concepts and Types
  • The concept of social structure refers to the relatively stable relationship formed in the process of interaction among various elements of society.

Grasp the structure of production relations from three aspects: ①The relationship between people and the means of production, that is, the combination form of workers and means of production ②The relationship between laborers’ mutual exchange activities in production, that is, the way of cooperation between people ③Labor products distribution relationship and the consumption relationship directly determined by it.

  • Type of social structure:
  1. Relational social structure: Refers to the combination of social structures in accordance with a certain order and certain interrelationships, which are the essence of social structures
  2. Substantial social structure: Guidance that social structure is composed of some basic units and elements as social entities
  3. Normative social structure: guides the various social entities in the social structure to exist simultaneously as social norms
  • Social Construction and Social Management
  • Social construction: In the social field, continuously establish and improve various social systems and operating mechanisms that can rationally allocate resources and opportunities. (In the 20th century, Sun Yat-sen's "Founding Strategy" fully expounded the great ideal and implementation plan for realizing China's modernization from the three aspects of psychological construction, material construction, and social construction).
  • Social management: In order to promote the coordinated operation of the social system, the government and social organizations organize, coordinate, supervise and control the components of the social system, different areas of social life and all aspects of social development.
  1. From the subject point of view, it has diversity
  2. In terms of means, the most important thing is system construction and moral construction
  3. In terms of goals, maintaining social order and resolving social conflicts are the overall goals of social management
  4. From the perspective of function, social management can promote a more equitable and reasonable allocation of social resources and social opportunities, and create an orderly and dynamic basic operating conditions and social environment for promoting economic and social development.

Section 2 Basic Elements of Society

  • population:
  • The concept of population: refers to the totality of living individuals of a certain quantity and quality connected by certain social relations in a specific area. Dual Attributes of Population: Natural Attributes and Social Attributes
  • Population quantity and quality:
  1. Population: It refers to the stipulation of the population, which refers to the sum of living individuals at a certain time and in a certain area. Usually, the population refers to the population size.
  2. Population quality: Also known as population quality, it is a regulation on the quality of population resources, including population physical quality, scientific and cultural quality, and ideological quality.
  • Population issues (population issues in our country):
  1. population quality
  2. rapid population movement
  3. Population imbalance
  4. Population aging accelerates
  5. Population gender imbalance
  • natural resources
  • Characteristics of natural resources: refers to the sum of all natural conditions associated with human activities, and is the external condition on which society depends for survival and development.
  1. Classification of natural resources: (1) Environmental resources, such as light, heat, air, water and land . (2) Biological resources: refers to plants and microorganisms in nature. (3) Mineral resources (in the classification of natural resources, natural gas belongs to: mineral resources)
  2. Characteristics of natural resources:
  1. limited natural resources
  2. Infinity of natural resources
  3. Systematic nature of natural resources
  4. Inhomogeneity of natural resources
  • The role of natural resources in social development
  1. Natural resources are the necessary conditions for the survival and development of human society
  2. Natural resources provide the source of social production and subsistence materials
  3. Natural resources affect the layout of social production sectors and the direction of production development
  4. Natural resources affect the speed of social development
  • environment
  • The concept of environment: refers to the human living environment composed of other living things and non-living substances surrounding human beings, and is the sum of all external conditions that affect human survival and development.
  • environment function

(1) The environment has a supporting role for human beings

(2) The environment has a supply function for human beings

(3) The environment has a regulating effect on human beings

(4) The environment has a cultural enlightenment effect on human beings

  • Environmental Utilization and Protection
  • Culture (omitted)

Section 3 What is Culture

  • cultural concept
  • The meaning of culture: it is the sum of all material and non-material products created by human beings. Among them, the British anthropologist Edward Taylor , who first defined culture, pointed out in his book " Primitive Culture" in 1871 that culture is knowledge, belief, art, ethics, law, customs, habits and the abilities acquired by members of society, etc. overall. In 1936, British anthropologist Malinois advanced Taylor's definition of culture in "On Culture".
  • Characteristics of culture:
  1. Creativity: Culture, whether in material form or culture, is not born, but created or derived by human beings in their long-term common life. Example: Water is not a culture, tap water is a culture; wind is not a culture, but using wind power to generate electricity is a culture
  2. Acquisition: Culture is not an instinct of innate inheritance, but the knowledge, experience, skills and habits acquired through learning and imitation. "Eating is not culture, what to eat, how to eat is culture"
  3. Sharing: All cultures are created, shared and observed by people in a group, a region, a nation, or even a country. "Individual people's preferences cannot become culture";
  4. Cumulative: Culture is a continuous process of innovation.
  5. specificity and commonality
  • Cultural structure: cultural traits, cultural clusters, cultural patterns
  1. Cultural traits: the smallest unit of culture, also known as cultural elements; (a teacup, a symbol, etc. are all cultural traits)
  2. Cultural cluster: A group of cultural substances that are functionally integrated with each other. They combine to perform a function to meet a certain need of people. These cultural substances form a cultural cluster. ( Japanese tea ceremony is a famous cultural cluster : including tea leaves, tea sets, water, tea making methods, tea drinking methods and rules, etc.)
  3. Cultural model: refers to a cultural whole composed of many cultural clusters, which is different from other cultural models.
  • system of cultural norms
  • 习俗：一种最古老最普遍的文化现象，几乎与人类历史一样长久。人们因自然环境和生产力的发展水平形成的生活式样，以及人们之间互相沟通形成的价值观、语言、行为规范等，被反复实践，逐渐形成习俗。习俗是比较持久稳定的行为模式，但随着社会物质生活积极性的变化，习俗也在变。习俗作为调整人们行为的重要社会规范，它的调整范围是最普遍，在社会生活的各个领域发挥作用，这是任何其他社会规范无法相比的。
  • 道德：是由习俗深化而来的，无论从治理国家的角度看，还是从提高人民生活质量的角度看，道德建设都是必不可少的。
  • 法律：最具有强制力的社会行为规范，有其自身的显著特征。一方面，法律具有公正性，制定什么样的法律不是根据人人平等的原则，而是要体现统治阶级的意思。另一方面，法律具有强制性。法律的社会功能包括惩罚功能、威慑功能和教育功能，并且法律的三种功能是联系在一起发挥作用的，缺一不可。
  • 宗教：宗教作为集信仰、观念、组织、制度等于一体的复合体，是人类社会发展历史中形成的重要文化现象，也是调整人们社会行为的重要规范，并将在历史发展过程中长期存在（邪教与宗教在本质上的区别：）
  1. 宗教劝人热爱生活，尊重世俗，维护社会秩序；邪教宣扬世界末日，贬低世俗，劝人毁灭，破坏社会秩序
  2. 宗教的神是超人间的，宗教教义是经典；邪教的神就在人间，它把生活在现世的教主当作神，把教主的话视为经典
  3. 宗教宣传博爱，爱教徒，爱大众；邪教害人，以残忍手段残害信徒，残害他人。
  • 文化交流：是指从文化传播开始的两种文化之间互相沟通、采借、冲突与融合的过程。
  • 文化传播：是指某种文化元素随同社会交往而扩散，为其他社会所吸收的过程。（文化交流是从文化传播开始的，没有文化传播，就不可能有文化交流）“文化传播”这个概念始见于英国人类学家泰勒的《原始文化》一书。文化传播要有载体，最原始、最基本的载体是人，人是流动是文化传播的重要载体。
  • 文化冲突：是指异质文化在传播，接触中出现的互相排斥的倾向和状态。文化冲突的根源除了民族性之外，更有阶级性。
  • 文化采借：又译为文化杂交，指一种文化或吸收另一种文化的某些文化元素或文化集丛，融入本文化的过程。采借的选择性：①有用性；②符合或者接近本民族的价值观与民族外来文化元素或集丛，容易被采借；
  • 文化多样性
  • 文化震惊：是指生活在某一文化中的人，当他初次接触到另一文化模式时所产生的思想上的迷惑与心理上的震撼。
  • 主文化与亚文化
  1. 主文化：又称主流文化，是在社会上占主导地位的，为统治集团倡导，并被多数社会成员所接受的文化。
  2. 亚文化：仅为社会上一部分成员所接受的或为某一地区、某一群体特有的文化。
  • 文化中心主义和文化相对主义
  1. 文化中心主义：将本民族或本群体的文化模式作为中心和标准，以此衡量和评价其他文化，常常怀疑、贬低、甚至敌视自己所不熟悉的文化；
  2. 文化相对主义：各种不同的文化模式是不能评价和比较的。
  • 文化自觉
  • 什么是文化自觉：指生活在一定文化中的人对自己的文化有“自知之明”，对他人的文化有“识人之明”。“文化自觉”是费孝通提出的。1990年12月，费孝通赴日本参加 “东亚社会国际研讨会” ，做了题为《人的研究在中国》的讲话，指出“各美其美，美人之美，美美与共，天下大同”，这四句话是“文化自觉”的历程的概括。
  • 文化自觉的内容：
  1. 文化自觉关注了中国现代化的反思
  2. 文化自觉关注了文化断裂下的主体再造
  3. Cultural self-consciousness puts forward the value appeal of sharing beauty and beauty (Samuel Huntington, a famous American scholar, " The Clash of Civilizations and the Reconstruction of World Order")

Chapter Four Socialization and Social Roles

Section 1 What is Socialization

          Socialization is the dialectical unity of contradictions between human needs, environment and education, and social roles are the reflection of various social attributes or social relations of people.

  • Socialization overview:
  • The connotation of socialization: it is the unified process of the cultural education of the individual by the society and the active choice and adjustment of the individual to the society.
  1. Three aspects of understanding:
  1. Understanding from the aspect of time: that is, personal socialization involves the whole process of life development
  2. Understanding from the aspect of content: personal socialization focuses on all the cultural heritage that an individual should have as a member of society
  3. Relational understanding: personal socialization focuses on the interaction between the individual and society and the outcomes of the individual society
  1. Socialization has the characteristic of coercion: Human socialization, as the result of the interaction between the individual and society, is the unity of coercion and initiative .
  1. Individual human beings have no innate behavior patterns and will not naturally become social beings
  2. Individuals often lack initiative and self-awareness in the process of socialization
  • Content of socialization: socialization of life skills, socialization of values, socialization of politics, socialization of behavior, socialization of roles
  • type of socialization
  • Basic socialization: It is the process by which biological people acquire human sociality and qualifications for social life through social and cultural education. Basic socialization tasks: (1) Physical maturity (2) Social maturity. There is also a special form of basic socialization, which is the process of knowledge preparation for a person to adapt to the needs of a specific role, such as: vocational school education and pre-job training and job training .
  • Continued socialization: It is the socialization of people after adulthood, or secondary socialization .
  1. The need for continued socialization:
  1. Society is constantly changing and developing. It is difficult for any individual's existing knowledge and talents to adapt to the requirements of the future society. Therefore, basic socialization only lays the foundation for people's basic ability to survive and develop. A person must adapt to the environment and requirements of the future society. , only continue to learn and improve continuously in the interaction between the individual and society.
  2. In modern society, with the rapid development of science and technology, people are faced with the trend of rapidly accelerating the growth and updating of knowledge. Therefore, if a person does not learn in a wider range and accept the new knowledge he needs, he may be eliminated by the society.
  3. The scope of education in the period of basic socialization has relatively large limitations. In the face of the gradual expansion of the scope of personal communication, more and more extensive social life experience must be enriched.
  4. People not only learn social culture, but also shoulder the responsibility of developing social culture. Adults are more able to actively select and internalize knowledge in the practice of life, and can create the future through learning.
  • Re-socialization: also known as re-socialization, it is the process of establishing a new knowledge structure, value standard and behavior model that meets the needs of society and the new situation from the previous knowledge structure, value standard and behavior model of the individual. It is a process in which a person changes and adapts from one way of life to another. ( Adult education is a common developmental socialization process )
  • Positive socialization and reverse socialization
  1. Positive socialization: refers to the process of cultural transmission and education from the previous generation to the next generation.
  2. Reverse socialization: It is a process in which the younger generation uses new knowledge and new concepts to influence the older generation, and this socialization becomes cultural feedback .
  • theories about socialization
  • Freud's psychoanalytic theory: based on the analysis of personality structure. It is believed that personality is composed of three parts: id, ego and superego.
  • Cooley and Mead's Theory of the Self: The self, as a social product, emerges in three stages. First, the way we behave in the presence of others; second, we perceive other people's judgments of our actions; third, we evaluate our actions based on understanding other people's reactions. Mead divides the self into two parts: the "host self" and the "guest self".
  • Kohlberg's stage theory of moral consciousness development : It is believed that children find their own moral values ​​as they grow older, and the moral standards accepted by children in all cultures around the world are basically the same, such as caring for others, equality reciprocity etc. Moral development is divided into three levels and six stages : ①Pre-routine level: the first stage is the obedience and punishment stage, and the second stage is the relative utilitarian stage; ②Routine level: the third stage is the good boy stage, and the fourth stage is the The stage of legal order; ③ Post-routine level: the fifth stage is the stage of social contract legitimacy, and the sixth stage is the stage of universal ethical principles.

Section 2 Conditions of Socialization

  • Biological factor: refers to a special genetic quality that is provided by the previous generation for the next generation and is conducive to human beings to engage in social activities.
  • Environmental factors: Refers to the entire social environment that affects the individual's socialization process. Environment includes: geographical environment, social environment.
  • The family: the first element of socialization. Four determinants:
  1. Childhood is the foundational period of socialization
  2. Individuals acquire social status first through the family
  3. The status of family members profoundly affects individual behavior patterns
  4. Parental teaching is the initial socialization route
  • Schools : Socializing Environmental Factors of Special Value
  • Partner group : The partner group is a special group, generally based on age, gender, occupation, interest, etc.
  • Work unit : A lot of time in life is spent in the work unit, which is also an important environmental factor of socialization.
  1. The role of the work unit on the individual is mainly manifested in:
  1. Through work, establish basic social relationships with occupation as a bond
  2. Occupation is different, people's social status, life process and economic situation are also different, so people's socialization state presents occupational characteristics
  3. Occupation affects people's social prestige and values, so life goals and socialization goals
  4. The working process of a person is a special social role adjustment process, and this process is always expressed as a role learning process to adapt to professional goals.
  • Community : the epitome of society and culture, and the basic social environment of individual life, which affects all aspects of human socialization
  • Mass media : It is an important social environment factor in modern society.
  • Internet: refers to a global information system composed of independently operated and managed computer networks of various types and sizes
  1. Positive effects of the Internet on the socialization of adolescents:
  1. Giving Teens Educational Choices
  2. Broaden the horizons of young people
  3. Helps adolescents better understand social norms
  4. Provides a good interactive environment for young people to communicate with others
  • Social practice:  is the fundamental way to realize the internalization and accumulation of knowledge and achieve the goal of socialization
  1. Observational learning: also known as imitation learning ( direct imitation is the individual's copying behavior of the model in time or in a specific environment , while anti-imitation is the behavior of the model as a lesson )
  2. Role-playing: the concretization of personal practice, manifested in three situations, that is, playing a real role, playing a hypothetical role, and temporarily acting as a certain role
  3. Knowledge accumulation: the process of knowledge is the process of turning other people's knowledge into one's own knowledge and processing perceptual knowledge into rational knowledge

Section 3 Social Roles

  • The concept of social role: It is determined by a certain social status and conforms to certain social expectations . "Role" is a concept earlier used by American psychologist Mead in social psychology, and now it has become one of the basic concepts of society.
  1. The meaning of social role:
  1. Social role is the external expression of social status
  2. A social role is a set of behavioral norms and behavioral expectations

(3) Social roles are the reflection of various social attributes and social relations of people

(4) Social roles are the basis for forming social groups and social organizations

  • types of social roles
  • Pre-assigned roles and self-imposed roles: the difference in the way of acquiring roles .
  1. Inherited role: Refers to the social role established on the basis of innate physiological factors such as blood relationship and heredity.
  2. Self-acquired roles: Refers to social roles acquired through personal activities or efforts.
  • Prescriptive vs. Open Roles: Degrees of Role Normalization
  1. Prescriptive role: means that the rights and obligations of the role are strictly and clearly defined
  2. Open role: means that the rights and obligations of the role are not strictly and clearly defined
  • Utilitarian vs. Expressive Roles: What the Roles Pursue
  1. Utilitarian roles: Refers to those social roles whose goal is to pursue practical interests
  2. Expressive role: refers to a social role whose purpose is not to obtain economic benefits and rewards, but to express social system and order, social behavior norms, values, ideology and morality, etc.
  • Social role-playing: Stages of social role-playing: role expectation→role comprehension→role practice
  1. Role Expectations: Refers to society's expectations and requirements for the behavior patterns of a certain role.
  2. Role Comprehension: Refers to the role bearer's understanding of their role norms and role requirements.
  3. Role practice: the actual process or activity of role-taking, which is the development of role comprehension.
  • Misalignment of social roles:
  1. Role tension: Individuals are overwhelmed with time and energy in the actual process of role-playing, which is called role tension.
  2. 角色冲突：不同角色承担者之间的冲突，常由于角色期望不同，角色领悟的差别、人们没有按角色规范行事等引发
  3. 角色不清：社会大众或角色的扮演者对于某一角色的行为标准不清楚而引起的角色矛盾
  4. 角色中断：一个人所承担的前后相继的两种角色之间发生的矛盾。
  5. 角色失败：由于多种原因而使角色扮演者无法成功地扮演其角色，从而角色失败现象。

第四节 人的全面发展

  • 社会化的基本目标
  1. 从根本上说：就是培养社会合格成员
  2. 中国人的社会化基本目标：就是培养适应建设有中国特色的社会主义需要的新人
  3. 社会化目标的确立，有其基本的依据：
  1. 社会化的目标总是与人们生活的一定社会相联系
  2. 人的社会性特征，是通过不同社会群体的阶梯逐步现实的
  3. 个人既是社会化的对象，又是社会化的主体，是客体和主体的统一
  4. 因此，社会化目标的确定，不能不考虑主体因素，个人的抱负水平以及对社会期望的理解认同程度，对社会化目标的实现在着重要的影响。
  • 人的全面发展思想
  1. 人的全面发展就是马克思主义为人的社会化提出的最高目标。
  2. 人的全面发展是每个人都能得到平等、完整发展、和谐发展和自由发展
  • 人的全面发展的实现过程：
  1. 人的全面发展：是人的一切属性的全面发展
  2. 生产力的高度发展是人的全面发展的物质基础，先进的社会生产关系是人的全面发展的基本条件
  3. 当代人的全面发展，从一定意义上说，就是实现人的现代化

第五章 社会互动

第一节 社会互动的涵义与形式

  • 社会互动的办界定
  • 社会互动的概念：是人与人之间通过一定的符号和交往形式而产生相互影响的过程。
  • 社会互动的构成因素
  1. 必须要有两个或两个以上的互动主体
  2. 互动主体之间必须发生某种形式的接触
  3. 参与互动的各大方有意识地考虑到行动“符号”所代表的“意义”
  • 社会互动的基本形式
  • 暗示：
  1. 暗示的概念：是人们为了某种目的，在非对抗的条件下，通过语言、表情、肢体语言以及某些符号，用含蓄的、间接的方式对他人的心理与行为进行影响，使其以暗示者所示意的方式进行活动。三个环节：暗示者、暗示信息、被暗示者
  2. 暗示的分类：直接暗示、间接暗示、自我暗示、反暗示
  • 模仿：
  1. 模仿的概念：是在没有外在压力条件下，个体受他人影响，而仿照他人，使自己与之在某些方面相同或相似的现象。
  2. 模仿的特点：
  1. 模仿的社会刺激是非控制性的，榜样是模仿的条件，但模仿是自愿产生的，有时可能是无意识的
  2. 相似性模仿者的举止近似于其所模仿的榜样
  1. 模仿的意义
  1. 模仿是学习的基础
  2. 适应作用，模仿可以让个体较为方便地适应他所面临的各种情景
  3. 增进群体的凝聚力
  • 交换：
  1. 交换的概念：是在一定的规则下，行为者为了获得回报而行动并获得回报的社会互动形式。
  2. 交换构成要素：目标、付出、回报、效益
  3. 交换的类型：物质的交换、非物质的交换
  4. 交换存在的社会基础：交换主要是由社会差异引起的。
  • 竞争: 
  1. 竞争的概念：是指行动者之间为了共同的目标而展开的争夺，它是社会互动的一种普遍形式。
  2. 竞争的类型：
  1. 从社会互动的主体分：个人和个人的竞争、个人和群体之间的竞争、群体和群体之间的竞争
  2. 从社会互动的内容的目标来看：（宏观分类）经济竞争、政治竞争 、科技竞争；（微观分类）地位竞争、声望竞争、恋人竞争
  • 合作: 
  1. 合作的概念：是指在社会互动中，行为者之间为了共同的目标，彼此密切配合的一种联合行动。作为社会互动的最普遍形式，同时也是个人赖以生存和社会赖以维系的最基本的前提是合作。
  2. 合作的类型：自发性合作、制度化的传统合作、指导性合作、契约式合作
  1. 自发性合作：这是一种最古老和最具普遍意义的合作形式。指某种情境下人们自觉自愿地聚集帮助他人解决实际困难和需要的行为。如左邻右舍帮助救人。
  2. 制度化的传统合作：当自发性合作逐步发展为稳定的社会习惯，而成为一种制度化的合作以后，如一起收获庄稼等。
  3. 指导性合作：现大社会比较多见的合作形式。指双方在具有权威地位的第三方的指导下一起完成某项工作，如经理指导工作；在老师指导下的大学生的社会研究。
  4. 契约式合作：指个人或群体之间达成协议，以契约或类似契约的方式进行合作。如金钱借贷等。
  • 冲突：
  1. The concept of conflict: refers to the conscious actions of different actors to mutually prevent each other's intentions. The source of the conflict is the scarcity of certain social resources.
  2. Type of coverall:
  1. Scale of Conflict: Conflict Between Groups and Conflict Between Individuals
  2. The nature of the division of conflicts: economic conflicts, political conflicts, cultural conflicts, ethnic conflicts, class conflicts
  3. Types or degrees of conflicts: explicit conflicts (arguments, fist fights, weapon fights, hatred fights, wars, lawsuits, etc.) , implicit conflicts
  • Adjustment: 
  1. The concept of adjustment: It is the process of adjusting one's behavior to meet the requirements of the environment and adapting to conflict situations.
  2. Causes of adjustment:  (1) adjustment caused by conflict; (2) adjustment caused by social development or change; (3) adjustment caused by cultural exchange or migration
  3. Various types of adjustments:
  1. Adjustments arising from conflict: reconciliation, compromise, domination, and submission
  2. Adaptation resulting from environmental change: tolerance, contingency, sudden shift, compliance

Section 2 Symbols of Social Interaction

  • language
  • Concepts of signs and language
  1. Symbol: A symbol recognized by a group of people as a meaningful representation of something other than itself
  2. Language: Refers to the unique tools used by human beings to express meaning and communicate ideas, and is a system composed of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
  • The importance of language: Language is the most important symbol system in social interaction and a tool for cultural exchange, cultural transmission and cultural inheritance. Language gives meaning to the world.
  • language diversity
  • body language
  • The concept of body language: it is an action or way of expressing meaning with the body instead of language.
  • Types of body language: facial expressions and gestures and postures.
  • personal space
  • The concept of personal space: the immediate physical area surrounding a person that one can use to express meaning in motion
  • Personal Space Theory: Anthropologist Edward T. Hall proposes:
  1. Intimacy distance: 18 inches, within about 45 centimeters; within this distance, one party can feel the breath of the other party, and can see the other party's body in detail, which is the distance between intimate people to show acceptance and protection.
  2. Personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet, 45-122 cm: This space is reserved for acquaintances and friends.
  3. Social distance: 4 feet to 12 feet, 122-365 cm: It is a more formal occasion distance, such as some social occasions such as meetings.
  4. Public distance: more than 12 feet, more than 365 cm. This is the distance reserved for some public figures like orators

Section 3 Theory of Social Interaction

  • Symbolic interactionism: also known as symbolic interactionism or symbolic interactionism, refers to a theoretical school that studies the life of human groups from the daily natural environment of interacting individuals. American sociologists Cooley, Thomas, Mead and others were early representatives of symbolic interactionism.
  • Dramatic theory: A theory of interaction that uses performance and metaphor to illustrate the interactions between people in everyday life . Representative: Goffman "Self-Performance in Everyday Life", in which Goffman used drama terms such as "script, audience, performer, role, front stage, backstage, mask, props" to illustrate that people The process of how social interaction occurs in everyday life. According to Goffman, the most important feature of social interaction is "impression management" or "self-presentation"
  • Ethnographic: The term was coined by Garfunke in 1954, referring to the methods used by ordinary people in their daily interactions. The study of the methods people use in their everyday interactions draws heavily on Schutz's phenomenological sociology. The basic assumption is that in real life, social members conduct social interaction according to certain rules and procedures. These unwritten and generally recognized interaction rules in daily life are the basis of all social life.

Section 4 Social Network and Social Capital

  • The meaning of social network: refers to the relationship network between individuals; it originated from the six degrees of separation theory of the American psychologist Milger and the 150 rule of group size of the "Herd Brotherhood" activities organized by European farmers.
  • The characteristics of social network: 1. universality; 2. multiplicity; 3. ball-ball; 4. multi-directional;
  • Form and function of social network:
  • The form of social network:
  1. Closed form and open form: differentiated by the degree of difficulty for individuals to enter and exit the social network.
  2. Firm and Loose Forms: Distinguished by the Linkages of Individuals and Social Networks
  3. Mutually beneficial form and complementary form: differentiated by the benefits obtained by individuals in social networks
  • The function of social network: to obtain all kinds of information, various spiritual support and material resources.
  • Strong and Weak Ties
  1. Strong relational network: It means that the personal social network has strong homogeneity, the relationship between people is close, and there are strong emotional factors to maintain interpersonal relationships
  2. Weak relationship network: the individual's social network has strong heterogeneity, and the relationship between people is not close, and there is not much emotional maintenance
  • social capital
  • The Meaning and Research of Social Capital
  1. The concept of social capital: refers to the resources obtained through social connections and social relations.
  2. Research on social capital: In 1980, French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu published a short article "Social Capital" in the journal "Social Science Research", formally proposing the concept of "social capital"
  • Classification of Social Capital
  1. Taking Brown as the representative: social capital at the micro level, social capital at the meso level, and social capital at the macro level
  2. According to the nature of social capital: homogeneous social capital and heterogeneous social capital
  3. Robert Collier divides social capital into: government social capital and civil society capital. ①Government social capital is the various government institutions that affect people's ability to cooperate for mutual benefit. These institutions include the efficiency of contract enforcement, legal rules, and the degree of civil liberty allowed by the state. ②Civil society capitalism's values, norms, informal networks, and social membership are institutional factors that can affect the ability of individuals to cooperate to achieve common goals.

Chapter VI Family and Marriage

Section 1 What is Family and Marriage

  • what is family
  • The concept of family: It is a long-term living group composed of people with marriage, blood or adoption relationship, which is the most basic and important form of group in human life . Basic family relationship: marriage relationship, blood relationship, adoption relationship
  • Characteristics of the family: (Summary by sociologist William Goode in the book "Family":
  1. At least two adults of different genders living together
  2. There is some kind of division of labor between them, i.e. they don't all do the same thing
  3. They engage in many economic and social exchanges, that is, they do things for each other
  4. They share many things like eating, sex, living
  5. There is a parent-child relationship between adults and their children. Parents have certain authority over their children and have obligations to them.
  6. There is a brother-sister relationship between children, mutual protection and mutual help
  • What is marriage: It is the foundation of the family, and the family generally begins with marriage. Marriage is usually a social institution in which a man and a woman form a husband and wife relationship according to social customs or legal provisions. Marriage, like family, has its own natural attributes, and marriage is a social behavior.
  • Theoretical Explanation of Family and Marriage
  • Structural-Functionalist Analysis
  1. Functionalists emphasize that the functions of the family—socialization, emotional support and companionship, sexual regulation, and economic cooperation—are important to the well-being and smooth functioning of society as a whole. ①Socialization; ②Emotion and companionship; ③Sexual rules; ④Economic cooperation;
  2. Structural-functional analysis emphasizes the connection between family and society as a whole, but it realizes the diversity of social families, and also ignores some negative aspects of family life, such as patriarchy, domestic violence, and gender inequality.
  • Theoretical Analysis of Social Conflict

Social conflict theory sees the family as the center of our lives. Conflict theory emphasizes, however, that the sexes in the family compete with each other in different ways, and in the process some family members benefit more from the family than others.

Section 2 Functions and Types of Families

  • family function
  1. normative behavioral function
  2. economic life function
  3. population reproduction function
  4. spiritual life function
  5. educational function
  6. Nurturing and support functions
  • Family structure type: (Symbol identification: △ means male, ○ means female, = means marriage relationship)
  • Nuclear family: A family consisting of a couple and their unmarried children living together. (Family of Three) The nuclear family is the most stable form of all family forms. 
  • Stem family: refers to a family where a couple lives together with their parents and unmarried children. (Family of five)
  • Joint family: Refers to a family consisting of parents, multiple pairs of married children and grandchildren.
  • Other Families: Some Incomplete Families
  1. Incomplete family: a family in which one of the husband and wife lives with unmarried children due to divorce or widowhood;
  2. Generational family: a family consisting of only one generation of unmarried teenagers and grandparents ;
  3. Single family: that is, old-age households who are lonely and those men or women who do not marry or do not marry all their lives and live alone.
  • special type of family
  • reorganized family
  • "Lost only child" family: Refers to the family who lost their only child.
  • Homosexual family: Refers to the family where homosexuals choose same-sex marriage due to marriage pressure.
  • DINK family: Refers to "childless families", people who have the ability to have children but choose not to have children. In addition to actively not having children, they may also passively choose not to have children due to subjective or objective reasons.
  • Left-behind families: refer to "semi-migrant" families in which one of the husband and wife works outside the home and the other stays behind, and "double-flow" families in which both husband and wife work outside the home.

Section 3 Family and Marriage in Change

  • changes in family

On the whole, the family pattern presents a pattern in which the nuclear family is the main family, the backbone family is the second, and the single-person family is the supplement. The proportion of nuclear families of couples in urban areas has increased, and the growth of nuclear families of elderly couples has increased nationwide. The main manifestations are: family size miniaturization, family divorce rate rising, and family types diversification.

  • family size downsizing
  • Rising Divorce Rate in Families: (Reason for Rising Divorce Rate)
  1. The consideration of economic factors is relatively reduced
  2. The relaxation of public opinion pressure has led to an increase in the number of divorced people and the existence of a large number of
  3. Simplification of divorce procedures
  4. The husband or wife pays more attention to the quality of marital life and personal feelings, and cannot recognize and accept tolerance and depression
  5. Demands to improve marital life or consider divorce are increasingly initiated by the wife
  6. Among the divorced people, the age of marriage is getting younger, and the number of "ephemeral marriages" that divorce at a younger age and divorce after a short marriage has increased significantly. With the popularization of the Internet, the destructive effect of online dating on marriage by one spouse continues to appear.
  • Variety of family types
  • Changes in family function
  1. Weakening of economic function
  2. Functional shift of parenting and socialization
  3. The family's reproductive preferences began to change: In traditional Chinese families, childbearing is the most important function of the family, and family succession is a major event in the family .
  4. The Challenge of the Elderly Care Function
  • Changes in Family and Marriage Concepts
  • diversity of sexuality
  • Equalization
  • Behavioral rationalization

Chapter 7 Groups and Organizations

Section 1 What is a group

  • The Meaning and Characteristics of Groups
  • Group concept: It is a group of people connected by certain social relations for common activities and emotional exchanges. A clear definition of a group was made in the early 20th century. In the United States, Albion W. Small put forward that in 1905, he defined a group as "a large group or a small group of people, during which the relationship between We have to think about them as a whole . "
  • Characteristics of the group:
  1. There are a certain number of social members: there are at least two members of a group, which is the main basis for forming a group . Among the maharajas, there is still a certain division of labor and cooperation, and there is a "natural leader".
  2. There are certain goals accepted by group members: group goals are the concrete manifestation of group functions and the soul of the organization .
  3. Have clear membership relationships and develop a sense of belonging
  4. have a certain code of conduct
  5. persistent in time
  • type of group
  • Primary group and secondary group: It is a group classification based on the characteristics of the interaction relationship of members, which is one of the most classic classifications in sociological group research. The criterion for distinguishing primary groups from secondary groups is the characteristics of the interactive relationship among members. Such as family, neighbourhood, playmates, etc.
  1. 初级群体又称作首属群体，是社会群体中最古老、最基本的形式，是个人参加社会生活的基础群体。初级群体的类型：家庭、邻里、伙伴群体。初级群体概念是20世纪初由美国社会学家库利条件提出，他认为，个人总是从一些直接的、人数不多的、亲密的交往过程中形成最初的社会关系，由这些初级的社会关系联结起来的群体就是初级群体。初级群体规模较小，面对面交往，认同感强等特性。
  2. 次级群体又称为次属群体，是用来表示与初级群体相对应的各种群体，次级群体既是个人步入社会所必须加入的群体，也是个人社会活动领域拓展和活动能力增强的标志。如学校、职业群体、社团等。
  • 正式群体和非正式群体：以群体的关系结构和组织功能为标准而进行的一种群体分类。
  1. 非正式群体是一种自发形成的、元正式组织结构、无正式章程的群体
  2. 正式群体和非正式群体的概念，是美国学者梅约在霍桑实验中提出的。
  • 内群体和外群体：以成员对群体的心理归属为标准而进行的一种群体分类。最先是由萨姆纳《民俗论》提出。
  1. 内群体：也称“我群”成员感到自己与群体关系密切，对强烈归属感的，就是内群体。
  2. 外群体：也称“他群”由他人结合而成、与自己没有什么关系的群体，就属于外群体。
  • 成员群体和参照群体：以群体成员的归属为标准而进行的一种群体分类
  1. 成员群体：也就是内群体，个人属于该群体的成员，并以本群体的规范作为自己活动的准则，各成员之间在行为上彼此互相影响。
  2. 参照群体：指被某一群体成员用来作为某种参照对象并试图效法的群体。概念是由美国社会学家海曼提出。
  • 大群体和小群体：群体的规模为标准而进行的一种群体分类。
  1. 指规模较大、人数较多、人员之间较少直接互动的群体。
  2. 指规模较小、成员之间能够直接互动的群体。
  • 初级群体
  • 初级群体的涵义和特征：
  1. As a social group with interpersonal relationships formed by face-to-face interaction, primary groups have an important position and role in social life. The basic group for individuals to participate in social life is the primary group. Primary groups were first proposed by Cooley.
  2. feature:
  1. small scale
  2. Have long-term, frequent face-to-face interactions
  3. The personality characteristics of members can be more comprehensively expressed
  4. Role positions among members are difficult to replace
  5. Habits, ethics, and feelings play an important role in keeping groups together
  • Types of primary groups: 1. Family; 2. Neighborhood; 3. Partner group.

Section 2 Organization and Organizational Theory

  • The concept of organization: It is a group with a relatively strict structure and institutionalization established by people to achieve specific goals.
  • Organization process :
  • Organizational decision-making : Organizational decision-making refers to the process in which members of an organization make choices and decisions from more than two action plans in order to achieve organizational goals optimally. Organizational decision-making is not only the task of the upper level of the organization, but runs through the entire process of the organization's operation.
  1. The organizational decision-making process can be divided into four stages:
  1. Intelligence stage: that is, to investigate the environment and understand the information needed for various total weights .
  2. Design phase: that is, to formulate various possible courses of action
  3. Decision stage: choose a course of action from various possible solutions
  4. Review phase: the evaluation of the selected course of action
  • Organizational communication refers to the information exchange within an organization, that is, the process in which members of an organization convey ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings or intelligence through various forms of communication.
  1. Forms of organizational communication:
  1. From the perspective of the direction of communication information, it can be divided into: vertical communication and horizontal communication
  2. According to the nature of communication, it can be divided into formal communication and informal communication.
  • Organizational control: refers to the organization's use of various rules and regulations and rewards and punishments to restrict the behavior of members of the organization to ensure that the organization's decisions and instructions can be effectively implemented and maintain the order of the organization.
  1. Three processes:
  1. Pre-control: Refers to a series of control activities carried out before organizational behavior occurs
  2. On-site control: also known as synchronous control, is to guide and monitor the behavior of organizational members who are actually operating, so that the behavior of organizational members is always towards the goal of the organization
  3. Feedback control: To control the results of the organization's member activities. Organizations often evaluate and summarize the performance of their staff and managers and make material or spiritual rewards and punishments, which is a kind of feedback control.
  4. The three organizational processes of decision-making, communication and control are not separated from each other, but are interrelated and intertwined in the actual actual organizational operation process.
  • bureaucratic theory of organization
  • Legitimacy Rule Type:
  1. Bureaucracy (also known as bureaucracy) was proposed by Max Weber.
  2. Weber summarized the legitimate rule that has appeared in history into three types:
  1. Charismatic type: also known as charismatic type. It is based on heroes.
  2. Traditional: The most typical forms are patriarchal, hereditary and feudal.
  3. Legal type: The typical form is bureaucracy.
  • The characteristics of bureaucracy: It refers to the organizational form and management method based on legal authority, with formal rules as the main body of management, and with division of powers and position hierarchy. feature:
  1. Clearly defined fixed permissions
  2. clearly defined job levels
  3. Execution of duties is based on official documents
  4. Specialization of positions and recruitment based on merit
  5. Follow the rules
  • Advantages and disadvantages of bureaucratic organization
  1. Advantages: The biggest advantage of the bureaucracy is that compared with other organizational systems and management methods, the administrative management efficiency is high .
  2. shortcoming:
  1. formalism
  2. red tape
  3. Employment dilemma
  4. Lack of human touch
  5. Insensitive to external changes
  • Organizational Management Theory
  • Scientific management theory: In order for an organization to achieve its goals more effectively, the structure and processes of the organization must be scientific and rationalized. Representatives: American engineer Taylor and French management scientist Fayol;
  • Interpersonal relationship theory: People are the most important factor in an organization. People are not simple production tools, but have complex personalities and multi-faceted needs . Representatives: Harvard University professors Mayo and Roy Risberg (Hawthorne experiment), the basic viewpoints of interpersonal relationship theory:
  1. People are the most important factor in an organization. People are not simple production tools, but have complex personalities and various needs;
  2. The reasons that affect the enthusiasm of employees are not mainly physical factors and physiological factors, but mainly social factors, psychological factors and interpersonal relationships. The interpersonal relationship theory opposes Taylor and other scientific management theorists who regard people as "talking machines". ", or people's activities are only driven by money, and people are considered to be "social people" . This theory was gradually formed by the famous Huo under the guidance of professors Mayo and Royce Riesberg of Harvard University.
  3. Interpersonal relationship theory has brought breakthrough enlightenment to update people's understanding of organizational management:
  • The theory of interpersonal relationship requires organizational management to pay attention to the influence of non-economic factors, and believes that production efficiency depends on social norms rather than physiological capabilities;
  • Interpersonal relationship theory emphasizes the role of group identity of organizational members on organizational management, and believes that organizational members usually participate in organizational activities not as individuals but as informal groups
  • Interpersonal relationship theory requires organizations to manage interpersonal communication, and believes that interpersonal communication between organizational leaders and organizational members, including formal and informal communication, will affect the efficiency of organizational actions and the enthusiasm of organizational members.
  • Organizational Behavior Theory: Organizational management theory developed from interpersonal relationship theory. Representative: Barnard proposed: Organizational Balance Theory, which believes that the existence of an organization depends on the balance maintained between the contribution and satisfaction of its members. McGregor put forward the "X" and "Y" theories, and differentiated and analyzed the theoretical assumptions behind different management models. (X refers to an autocratic management theory; Y theory refers to a humanitarian and helpful management theory)
  • Contingency theory: also known as situation theory, it is believed that organizational management is not only related to the organization itself, but also involves the relationship between the organization and the environment. ways and actions. Representatives : American psychologists John Moores and Jay Rosch (super " Y " theory)

The basic point of view of super "Y" theory:

  1. people come to work organizations with different needs and motivations
  2. Different people have different requirements for organizational management
  3. Factors such as organizational goals, nature of work, and employee quality have a great impact on the efficiency of organizational structure and leadership styles

Section 3 Collective Behavior

  • What is collective behavior:
  1. Concept: Refers to the non-institutionalized behavior that is largely formed spontaneously and participated by many individuals in the absence of definite organizational procedures and institutional norms.
  2. Characteristics of collective behavior :
  1. Mass nature : Collective action always appears as the joint action of a considerable number of people;
  2. Spontaneity : group behavior that is not prearranged in routine life
  3. Unorganized : Collective behavior examines those group behaviors ranging from completely unorganized to those with a relatively low degree of organization.
  4. Deinstitutionalization : Always formed outside the system.
  • Traditional Explanations of Collective Behavior
  • Le Pen's mob theory: Once many individuals form a group, they will have a unique collective psychology. This collective psychology will cause individuals to involuntarily lose the ability to think rationally through mutual emotional infection, and their behavior It will be very different from when you are alone, and your mind will become simple. It will be very easy for people to accept the opinions, ideas and beliefs provided by the group without doubt, and blindly imitate the behavior and attitudes of others in the group.
  • Smelser's value accumulation theory (6 factors): It is believed that collective behavior cannot be explained purely from a psychological point of view, but the formation of collective behavior should be linked to social structure. Only under the combined influence of the following six factors will collective behavior be induced:
  1. structural contributors
  2. structural tension
  3. generalized belief
  4. Precipitating factors
  5. mobilization
  6. social control
  • Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action
  • Olson's free-rider theory: The hypothesis is that if individuals are more rational and the group size is larger, then the group is less likely to behave collectively. In his book, Olsen proposed a way to solve the free-rider dilemma: since the goal pursued by collective action is public goods, public goods can only provide a collective incentive for individuals; If it is not enough to make a changing person fight for a public good, then a selective incentive is needed. The so-called selective incentive refers to giving corresponding benefits to group members who put in more efforts in collective actions, thereby attracting individuals to make greater efforts in collective actions.
  • The resource mobilization theory of social movements:

The resources needed for social movement include: time resources, scale of participants, money and material resources, external support, and conceptual resources

Chapter VIII Education, Labor and Consumption

Section 1 Education

  • Concepts and Types of Education
  • The connotation of education: education in a broad sense refers to all social practice activities that spread and learn the achievements of human civilization—knowledge, skill and experience, so as to promote individual socialization and social individualization; education in a narrow sense refers to school education, that is, institutionalized education .
  • Type of education:
  1. From the places where education takes place: family education, school education, social education
  1. 家庭教育的主要目的：①促进儿童身心健康发展，为接受学校教育作准备；②配合学校教育，使儿童在德、智、体等方面正常发展。
  1. 从个体对教育的需求分：生存教育、地位教育
  1. 生存教育：指一个人为适应当下社会的基本生存而必须接受的教育。
  2. 地位教育：指一切超出基本生存所必需的教育之外的出于维护社会地位需求的教育类型。（特点：）
            • 地位教育与一个时代的现实生存条件没有必然的联系，接受某种教育是出于表现地位角色的需要。
            • 地位教育是获得上层社会地位的直接手段之一
            • 地位教育具有较为强烈的排他性，对某一个阶层是一种权利，而对别一个阶层却是遥不可得的
            • 地位教育是一种不平等的教育。
  • 现代学校教育的社会功能
  • 杜威等学者的观点
  1. 美国-约翰・杜威：教育的首要功能是社会化。他提出“教育即生活”“教育即改造”“学校即社会”和“儿童中心论”等观点中。
  2. 美国-罗伯特・默顿：大量社会现象都可能同时存在着显功能与潜功能。显功能，即系统参与方有意客观后果，其潜功能即系统参与方无意图的，未认识到的后果。
  • 现代学校教育的显功能
  1. 社会化的功能
  2. 社会选拔的功能
  3. 提高人口素质的功能：舒尔茨提出人力资本理论，认为人力资本是当今时代促进国民经济增长的主要原因。
  4. 知识技术创新的功能
  • 现代学校教育的潜功能
  1. 建立未来人际关系
  2. 减少就业压力
  3. 社会控制的功能
  • 教育的社会学分析视角
  • Education from the perspective of functionalism: proposed by the sociologist Durkheim, emphasizing that to find the function of a social fact, we should look at its relationship with a certain social goal. Parsons inherited this theory. He believed that human socialization is the prerequisite and basis for the stable operation of society, and the process of socialization is included in distribution and integration, that is, socialization enables different people to acquire different skills to adapt to Division of labor requires (distribution), while socialization can also allow people to readily accept the social inequality that distribution inevitably brings (integration). But this theory also has problems: ① Educational research following this line of thought cannot deal with the problem of social change. ②The functional analysis of education establishes a grand theoretical model, which pays attention to the relationship between large social systems, but ignores the relationship and interaction between actors within the system, including the subjective intention and motivation of action, and the way of action As well as many micro-level issues such as social situations and outcomes.
  • Education from the perspective of conflict theory: Social order is not based on the unanimous recognition of common values, but on the controlling power of the ruling class.
  • Education from the perspective of interactionism: called "humanism" and microcosmic orientation, it introduces the perspective into specific education and into the interaction between people.
  • Education and Social Inequality
  • educational inequality
  1. Reflected in the unequal distribution of educational resources;
  2. Education does not lead to large-scale upward social mobility;
  3. Access to education has been controlled by elites for a long time.
  • A Sociological Analysis of Educational Inequality
  1. Critique of Institutionalized Education: Ivan Ilyich (Critique of Institutionalized Education:)
  1. Schools are serving all kinds of repressed, isolated and dehumanized societies. In essence, they are social tools to maintain the existing order
  2. In schools, where learning and education are compulsive, it requires children up to a certain age to study compulsory lessons all day long under the supervision of teachers, and is an "institution without joy"
  3. In addition to the conventional at least teaching, the school also teaches some "invisible courses", that is, a kind of value dissemination - only through school education can everyone be prepared to grow into a social person, and there is almost nothing that is not taught in the school value, what is learned outside school is worthless
  4. Only by initiating a "de-schooling" reform, so that teaching and learning can regain a sense of personal responsibility, can we return to the original meaning of learning and education
  1. 教育与文化资本：接受同样的教育，但邓得的学习（学术）成就却可能因为而异。法国社会学家布迪厄从文化资本的再生角度加以批驳：①不同的社会阶层拥有不同的思维方式 、表达习惯与文化资本②较低阶层的孩子们所表现出来的谈吐风格与口味往往与体现着社会主流价值观的学校环境格格不入，因此在学习的过程中表现出更多适应性困难，缺乏自我提高的动力。③中产阶层的孩子拥有的文化资本与思维习惯与学校要求更为协调，因此更适应学校的生活，并更容易取得学业成功。
  2. 劳工阶层子弟的“亚文化”：
  1. 劳工阶层的孩子们并非一定存在较低的职业预期和自我能力认知，即心甘情愿的成为社会的下层
  2. 他们在自己的生活领域中，通常拥有不错的实际生存能力
  3. 由劳工子弟组成的男生群体（哥们儿）拥有自己的亚文化
  4. 在毕业后的就业过程中，劳工子弟们也不认同学校的主流社会价值，而是欣赏蓝领文化，并选择其作为求职意向
  5. 他们在成年后可能意识到教育对于社会阶层流动的意义，并开始教导下一代接受主流教育观念

第二节 劳动

  • 劳动的概念与类型
  • 什么是劳动：是有目的、有意识的变换、调整和控制自然界的活动，包括脑力活动和体力劳动。（劳动的意义）
  1. 马克思认为劳动是人类最基本的实践活动，是人类生产和发展的基本条件
  2. 劳动具有经济意义
  3. 劳动具有社会意义
  4. 劳动具有文化意义：劳动是个人认同的重要方式
  • 劳动的类型
  1. 根据是否有劳动报酬分为:有薪劳动、无薪劳动
  2. 根据消耗体力还是脑力分：体力劳动、脑力劳动
  3. 根据劳动的二重性分为：具体劳动、抽象劳动
  • 工业时代的劳动过程
  • 福特主义：一词起源于安东尼奥・葛兰西，指以泰勒制原则和市场为导向，以分工和专业化为基础的生产劳动方式。（特征：）
  1. 以生产机械化，自动化和标准化形成的流水线作业及其相应的工作组织，通过大规模的生产极大地提高了标准化产品的劳动生产率；
  2. 劳资双方从劳资于工作过程控制权的斗争转变为保障就业权和工资决定的斗争，最终形成了以劳资集体谈判制度为核心的劳资关系新形式；
  3. 专用性机器投资和低技能工人相结合的生产过程提高了资本有机构成，通过加速资本财团来降低高资本有机构成对利润率的影响，促进了企业之间纵向一体化过程，从而在主要行业形成了垄断竞争的市场格局。
  • 后福特主义：指以精益生产、柔性专业化等非大规模生产方式为核心的新的资本主义积累方式及社会经济结构的生产劳动方式。（特征：）
  1. 灵活的专项化生产取代了大规模标准化消费商品的生产；
  2. 减少所有不能增加产品最终价值的间接劳动形式，包括监督活动、质量控制、维护工作和清理工作等；
  3. 随着信息处理资源越来越掌握在企业一线工作区域，工作团队的自主权增加，企业内部协调信息发生了从中央集中处理到分散处理的转换
  4. 劳资关系从福特主义下的对抗性的竞争关系，变成某种程度上的相互合作与信任关系。
  • 当代资本主义劳动过程批判
  1. 布雷弗曼的压迫机制理论：提示了垄断资本主义时期劳动过程中的资本家彻底剥夺工人对劳动控制权的机制。
  2. 布洛维的生产政体理论：提示出资本主义劳动过程的政治效果和生产的政治规范工具共同构成了一个工厂独特的生产政体。
  • 就业
  • 影响求职成功的主要因素：1、人力资本（从统计学意义上来说，一个人教育程度越高，其在劳动力市场上的竞争力就越强）；2、社会网络；3、社会制度；4、社会偏见
  • 失业：是指达到就业年龄具备工作能力谋求工作但未得到就业机会的状态。失业率：指失业人口占劳动人口的比率，是准确描述就业形势的关键性指标。种类：
  1. 摩擦性失业：人们在转换工作过程中的失业
  2. 结构性失业：由于产业结构或者生产技术的改变，使得原有的工作机会消失而造成的失业
  3. 周期性失业：由于经济周期波动所造成的失业
  4. 季节性失业：受季节性因素影响的失业
  5. 残余性失业：因无就业能力的失业
  • Segmentation of the labor market: In reality, the complete, unified, and free labor market that neoclassical economics calls it has never really been produced. The labor market often presents a state of segmentation, and the common one is divided into the main labor market and the secondary labor market. Primary labor market job stability, high income, high benefits, good career prospects, high return on education, secondary labor market job instability, low pay, few benefits, high mobility, poor career prospects, return on education Low. China's labor market is divided into urban and rural areas, and the wages and benefits of migrant workers are lower than those of urban workers.

Section 3 Consumption

  • The concept and characteristics of consumption
  • What is consumption: It is an activity that consumes material and cultural wealth to meet the needs of production and life. Consumption is not only the consumption of life in people's life, but also the production and consumption that belongs to the orientation of production. Consumption is a link in the social reproduction process and an indispensable condition for people to survive and restore their labor force. Sociologist Granovetter believes that consumption behavior is not simply an individual, purely rational economic behavior, but a social behavior embedded in various cultural and social relations. ( Engel's coefficient is an important indicator to measure household consumption structure )
  • consumption characteristics:
  1. the economic nature of consumption;
  2. Psychological attributes of consumption: The psychological characteristics of consumers include consumer interests , consumption habits, values, personality, temperament, etc.
  3. the social nature of consumption;
  4. Cultural attributes of consumption:
  • consumer society
  • What is a consumer society: a society dominated by consumption other than the necessities of life
  • Characteristics of a consumer society:
  1. Consumption becomes the core of society
  2. Continuous expansion of consumption level and consumption scale
  3. Consumerism prevails
  • Sociological Theory of Consumption
  • Weber's life style theory: Consumption patterns make potential class differences explicit and form status groups with different lifestyles;
  • Fan Bo's theory of conspicuous consumption "Leisure Class": It is the wealthy upper class who show off and show off their money, financial resources and society to others through the wasteful, extravagant and extravagant waste of goods that are beyond practical and necessary for survival. Status, and the glory, prestige, and fame that comes with that status.
  • Baudrillard's Theory of Consumer Society: Anything that cannot be consumed has no value in existence

Chapter 9 Community and Community Development

  • what is community
  • The concept and function of the community
  • Definition of community: It is a community of social life based on a certain region. The concept of community was first put forward by the German sociologist Tohnis in his book "Community and Society" in 1887 ( it is generally believed that sociologists' typological research on communities began with Tohnis ); a community is a society based on a certain region The connotation of a living community includes three aspects that are interconnected:
  1. A community is a certain geographic area where people live together
  2. A community is a network of social relationships formed based on social interactions in which people live together
  3. Community is a symbol of collective identity. Because people live together, they have a certain degree of psychological identification with the area where the community is located, and regard themselves as a member of the community.
  • Features of the community:
  1. Economic life function (primary)  : the community has a system of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, and provides its members with basic necessities and services such as clothing, food, housing and transportation through production or import to meet the needs of community members , which is the primary function of the community.
  2. Socialization function: the community has a series of organizations and facilities, which pass on the community’s common values, behavioral norms, and basic common sense to members of the next generation of the community, or educate new immigrants so that they can integrate into community life. Such as family, neighborhood, school, church.
  3. Social control function: Any community will impose some form of sanctions on the behavior of its community members who deviate from social norms, so as to urge people to abide by social norms and maintain the social order of the community.
  4. Social participation function: the community can provide members with places, facilities and ways to live and communicate, and help community members participate in community affairs and wider social affairs. This is the social participation function of the community .
  5. The function of social security: a set of social security system can be provided to help community members who encounter problems and need help in the community.
  • The typological theory of community: It is generally believed that sociologists’ research on community began with the type research of German sociologist Toennes. In his book "Community and Society", he analyzed the two opposing concepts of "community" and "society". Type of social connection.
  • Humanistic Location Theory: It is an important theoretical development of community studies in the 20th century, which gathers a batch of research results on modern urban communities represented by the Chicago School.
  • Concentric circle theory: Burgess divides the city into five concentric circles, the first ring is the central business district, the second ring is the transition area, the third ring is the worker’s residential area, the fourth ring is the higher-end residential area, and the fourth ring is the high-end residential area. The Fifth Ring Road is a high-end residential area.
  • Sector theory: proposed by Hoyt on the basis of his criticism of Burgess' theory of concentric circles.
  • Multicore Theory: Proposed by Harris and Ullman .
  • Theoretical development after humanistic Put forward the "Humanistic Location Cluster Model", using the four elements of population, organization, environment and technology and their interrelationships to explain the location theory of the spatial layout of the city.
  • Community panorama research: The American scholars Linde and his wife created a panorama research with small towns as the object in community research, which is to describe the different parts of the community and explain the relationship between these different parts.
  • Community Studies in China: Chinese scholars' own community studies began during the rural construction movement in the late 1920s. The more famous ones are the Qinghe survey conducted by Yang Kaidao and Xu Shilian from the Department of Sociology of Yenching University, and the Dingxian survey conducted by sociologists Li Jinghan and Yan Yangchu .
  • community type
  • rural community
  • The concept of rural community: also known as rural community, refers to a highly homogeneous regional living community composed of people whose main means of livelihood is agricultural production. Rural community is the most basic form of community in human society, and it is the product of the development of human society to a certain historical stage.
  • Features of Rural Communities:
  1. Low population density in rural communities
  2. Relatively simple economic activities in rural communities
  3. The social structure of rural communities is relatively simple
  4. Social change in traditional rural communities is relatively slow
  • urban community
  • The concept of urban community: also known as urban community, refers to a regional living community with a certain size of population and a relatively high degree of heterogeneity that engages in various non-agricultural production as a means of livelihood. This definition is a comprehensive definition, including three aspects that people usually use to judge: population size, economic perspective, that is, the proportion of non-agricultural population in the community, and the degree of social heterogeneity .
  • The origin and development of the city: the urban community is the product of the development of social productivity to a certain stage, and the development of the city can be divided into two stages:
  1. The 17th and 18th centuries from the emergence of cities to the beginning of the industrial revolution are generally called ancient cities or pre-industrial society cities;
  2. Since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century until today, it is generally called a modern city or an industrial society city.
  • Features of modern urban community lifestyle:
  1. The social division of labor in urban communities is complex, residents are engaged in more specialized jobs, and their working backgrounds are very different
  2. The role of families and primary groups in urban communities has diminished, replaced by various formal organizations
  3. In urban communities, human interaction tends to be functional, rational and superficial
  4. Urban communities exist and accommodate more cultural differences
  • community development
  • What is community development: It refers to the promotion of planned social changes in urban and rural grass-roots communities by the community residents relying on their own strength, with the support of the government and other organizational structures, to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of the community, and to improve the quality of life of the community residents.
  1. In the process of forming the concept of community development, the most famous event in Britain, France and the United States in the early 20th century is the community good-neighbor movement, the main way is to set up community good-neighborliness service centers in poor areas of the city , to help people develop resources in their communities, and use self-help methods to improve the living conditions of the poor.
  2. The book "Talk to the People" co-written by internationally renowned female writers Pearl S. S. Buck and Yan Yangchu attracted attention from all over the world at the beginning of the establishment of the United Nations. In November 1945, when the first meeting of UNESCO was held in Paris, Chinese representative Qu Shiying and Yan Yangchu attended the meeting. Ding County's rural construction work experience, Yan Yangchu himself also gave a speech at the United Nations in 1949.
  3. The concept of community development was advocated by the United Nations after World War II and promoted worldwide.
  • Goals and Principles of Community Development
  • The purpose of community development: duality.
  1. The mission goal of community
  2. The process goal of community development is to promote the social participation of community residents, cultivate the spirit of mutual assistance and cooperation among community residents, and improve the ability of community residents to be self-reliant and cooperate to solve problems.
  • Principles of Community Development (Principles of Community Development in China):
  1. principles of democracy
  2. the principle of popular needs
  3. self-reliance principle
  4. The principle of combining bottom-up and top-down
  5. The principle of paying equal attention to the construction of material civilization, spiritual civilization and political civilization
  • Community Building in Chinese Cities
  • The Basic Process of Urban Community Construction in China
  1. Community construction is based on the grass-roots communities where people live and live daily. Through the self-government of community residents, the community cooperates with the government, enterprises and other social organizations to establish a modern social security system, modern urban management system and socialized services. A network-appropriate community support system.
  2. Community building in China began in the mid-1980s.
  • The Causes and Nature of Community Building
  • Basic tasks of current community development
  1. Promote the further improvement of the urban governance system
  2. Promote the construction of democratic politics
  3. Alleviate the negative impact of market economy development on social life

Chapter 10 Urbanization

Section 1 Overview of Urbanization (Urbanization is a manifestation of social change, and a process of human material and spiritual evolution.)

  • The concept and characteristics of the town you gave
  • What is urbanization: Also known as urbanization and urbanization, it refers to the process in which the population and social functions gather in cities or cities, the mode of production, cultural model and social roles change, and the process of integrating urban and rural areas.
  • The Evolution Model of World Urbanization
  1. European and American models: Market-led urbanization, the natural result of industrial development, social division of labor, and market refinement guided by the industrial revolution that started and evolved.
  2. Moyin model: politically-led urbanization.
  • Features of Contemporary Urbanization
  1. Accelerated urbanization process
  2. The speed of development of large cities is obvious
  3. Continuous innovation in knowledge economy, science and technology, logistics, information, communication and other fields of activity has enhanced the connotation of urbanization
  4. The progress of urban culture, urban lifestyle, and urban values ​​and the acceleration of their diffusion
  5. Suburban urbanization in developed countries is accelerating, and has entered the process of reverse urbanization and re-urbanization
  6. Urbanization in developing countries has constituted the main body of urbanization in the world today
  • The "push-pull" theory of world urbanization : World urbanization began in the middle of the 18th century. When the industrial revolution was on the rise, Britain was the birthplace of the industrial revolution. At the end of the 19th century, it took the lead in realizing urbanization. The theory of resultant force formed by the interaction between the push force of the place of emigration and the pull force of the place of immigration in the process of population flow. At the end of the 19th century, this theory was first proposed by the British demographer Ravenstein in his book "The Law of Population Migration".
  • Types of Town Generation
  1. Simultaneous urbanization: Urbanization in which the process of urbanization tends to be consistent with the level of industrialization and economic development
  2. Excessive urbanization: also known as advanced urbanization, refers to urbanization in which the level of urbanization significantly exceeds the level of industrialization and economic development
  3. Lagging urbanization: urbanization whose level of urbanization lags behind the level of industrialization and economic development
  4. Low urbanization: urbanization dominated by the agricultural industry with a weak industrial base
  5. Counter-urbanization: Urbanization in which the urban population, especially the suburban population of large cities, and the scattered distribution of satellite towns in the periphery of large cities.
  • World City: The high-end form of an international city refers to an international city that is at a high level in the process of urban internationalization and can exert global influence in the fields of world economy, politics, and culture, also known as a global city. (divided into three levels)
  1. World cities, also known as global international cities: New York, London, Tokyo
  2. International cities in the region: Paris, Hong Kong
  3. National international cities: Beijing, Shanghai
  • world city group
  • The concept of urban agglomeration: also known as "urban circle", "urban belt", "urban cluster" and "metropolitan contiguous area" refers to an urban agglomeration area with a population size of more than 25 million and a population density of more than 250 people per square kilometer. (Proposed by Joan Gottman) Three major urban agglomerations in China: Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (Bohai Rim)
  • Classification of urban agglomerations:
  1. From the perspective of scale and level, it can be divided into: super urban agglomeration, first-level urban agglomeration, second-level urban agglomeration, and third-level urban agglomeration
  2. From the perspective of form and structure, it can be divided into: galaxy city group, belt city group, fan-shaped city group, grape bunch city group
  3. From the perspective of central cities, it can be divided into: single-core urban agglomeration, dual-core urban agglomeration, and multi-core urban agglomeration
  • Urban agglomeration research:
  1. Garden City: Presented in Howard's Tomorrow: A Peaceful Road to Real Reform. He advocated that the garden city should have both the advantages of the city and the countryside, and a city with a blend of urban and rural areas and a combination of groups.
  2. Combining Cities: Patrick Geddes Creates the Concept of "Urbanology" Cities in Evolution - An Introduction to Urban Planning and Urban Studies.
  3. The theory of overall regional development: Lewis Mumford inherited Geddes' thought of regional rules and creatively put forward the theory of overall regional development.
  4. Theory of concentrated urban development: Le Corbusier put forward the theory of concentrated urban development from the perspective of urban planning vision.
  5. Urban Agglomeration Theory: Gottman Urban Agglomeration: Urbanization on the Northeast Coast
  6. Urban-rural integration area

Section 2 China's urbanization process

  • The Historical Background of China's Urban Generation
  1. Four characteristics of urbanization in the period of the Republic of China:
  1. Commercialization is stronger than industrialization, and industry, commerce, cities and urban populations are highly concentrated along the coast
  2. There are very few big cities, and the urban development is deformed and bloated
  3. Urban road facilities are extremely backward
  4. The nature of cities is mostly consumption parasitism, and they have become strongholds for imperialism, bureaucratic compradors, and feudal landlords to squeeze the people, forming serious urban-rural antagonisms, coastal and inland antagonisms
  • The Three Stages of China's Urbanization
  1. The first stage (1949-1957) is a steady start stage
  2. The second stage (1958-1977) is a stage of ups and downs
  3. The third stage (1978 to the present) is the stage of accelerated development
  • Planning and Evolution of Urban Agglomerations in China (Existing Problems:)
  1. The formation of urban agglomerations has too many human factors, too much administrative intervention, and lacks the natural development period of the market mechanism
  2. The formation and development of urban agglomerations are still limited by the constraints of the existing administrative system, and conflicts and conflicts of interests are prone to occur, which reduces the overall and individual efficiency and effectiveness
  3. The population and economic aggregates of urban agglomerations account for a relatively low proportion in the country, and their contribution to the coordinated development of urban and rural areas and the coordinated economic and social development of the country is still limited.
  4. The internal structure of urban agglomerations is not perfect, there are still relatively few large, medium and small cities, and there is a lack of intermediate links connecting central cities with many small towns and vast rural areas
  5. The spatial distribution of urban agglomerations is uneven, especially the distribution of population and economy, and the industrial structure overlaps seriously

Section 3 The choice of China's urbanization path and the construction of small towns

  • Different views on the choice of China's urbanization path:
  1. The theory of large and medium cities: According to the current situation of China's economic development, the main driving force of urbanization will come from the expansion of large and medium cities for a long time.
  2. Balanced development theory: also known as urban rest network theory, China's cities and towns should establish a multi-level and multi-functional network system led by large cities, with medium-sized cities as the backbone, and based on various small towns.
  3. Multi-model theory: Advocating that the road to urbanization should take into account the huge regional differences
  4. On the focus of small towns: Fundamentally, in China’s construction of socialism, two-thirds of the rural surplus labor force must be transferred to industry, so that the majority of the entire country’s population will become non-agricultural laborers.
  • China's urbanization policy: In 1978, the urbanization policy of "controlling large cities and building more small cities" was proposed. In October 1980, the National Urbanization Work Conference put forward the urban construction policy of " controlling the scale of large cities, rationally developing medium-sized cities, and actively developing small towns ".
  • Promoting the healthy development of small towns in China
  • Sustainable development on the road to urbanization:
  1. The construction of small cities and towns should have scientific planning
  2. The scale of small town construction should be moderate
  3. Ecological environment protection should be paid attention to in the construction of small cities and towns
  4. Establish a sound institutional mechanism for healthy development
  • Institutions and Mechanisms for the Healthy Development of Small Towns in China:
  1. Establish fiscal and taxation, land expropriation, administrative management and public service systems that are compatible with the healthy development of urbanization
  2. Accelerate the market-oriented reform of housing, employment, medical care, education and social security systems in small towns
  3. Accelerate investment in the construction of small towns, and guide social funds to invest in the development of small towns mainly through the role of the market mechanism under the guidance of the government
  4. On the premise of protecting cultivated land and safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of farmers, properly solve the construction land in small cities
  5. Reform the management system of small towns and form an administrative management system in line with the economic and social characteristics of small towns as soon as possible
  6. In particular, it is necessary to strengthen the civic quality education of residents in small towns, so that they can adapt to the urban culture as much as possible and assume the responsibility of town builders.

Chapter 11 Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Section 1 Social Inequality

  • What is social inequality: broad sense refers to social differences, any differences between individuals or groups (represented by Jean-Jacques Rousseau: ① natural or physical inequality ② spiritual or political inequality); narrow sense is Refers to class differences among individuals or groups.
  • Related Concepts of Social Inequality
  • gender and age
  1. It refers to the physiological and psychological differences between men and women, which are mainly manifested in six aspects:
  1. In terms of language expression: female wins
  2. In terms of vision and balance ability: male wins
  3. Logical thinking and mathematics: Male wins
  4. Tactile aspect: female wins
  5. Competitiveness and aggressiveness: Men win
  6. Memory and Observation: Female Wins
  • caste, race and class
  1. Caste: A social hierarchy that divides members of society into different groups based on blood, blood and occupation.
  2. Race: Also known as race, it refers to a group of people who have the genetic characteristics of living together in terms of institutional form.
  3. Class: Refers to groups or social groups that are distinguished from each other by economic status and political and legal status.
  • class and class
  1. Class: Refers to such groups that, because of their different positions in social production in history, their relationship to the means of production, and their roles in social labor organizations, they have received their share of social labor. The way and amount of wealth are also different.
  2. Class: One refers to the hierarchical division within the class, and the other refers to groups with different social status.
  • Social division of labor and social inequality
  • Private ownership and the emergence of human inequality: as early as the 18th century, the French Enlightenment thinker Rousseau put forward the book "On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality", which clearly stated that the emergence of human inequality came with private ownership and was established. On the sole basis established by private ownership. "The earliest exponent of the theory of division of labor," Adam Smith , first created the concept of "division of labor" in his book "A Study of the Nature and Causes of National Wealth" and expounded the relationship between social division of labor and class formation.
  • Social division of labor and social inequality:
  1. Marx and Engels' theory of social division of labor: Marx's theory of class division holds that the fundamental criterion of class division is the ownership relationship to the means of production.
  1. There is a difference between the natural division of labor and the real division of labor
  2. It is a qualitative leap from natural division of labor to real division of labor
  3. The unequal distribution of products and private ownership of products arose alongside the real division of labor
  4. The development of the division of labor led to the separation of material labor and spiritual labor
  5. The largest division of labor between material labor and spiritual labor is the separation of cities and villages
  6. In a society of class antagonisms, the development of the division of labor is of a contradictory nature
  • Two research traditions of social inequality: stage analysis and stratification research constitute two research traditions of social inequality.
  1. Hierarchical analysis: class struggle is the key to understanding the historical development of mankind (including the evolution of social inequality), and its conflict theory assumptions about social inequality are clearly reflected in the Communist Manifesto.
  2. Stratification research: refers to the social inequality research tradition that focuses on the distribution and acquisition of "life opportunities". three phases:
  1. Weber's discourses on class, status groups, and normality constitute the theoretical sources of the tradition;
  2. K. Davies and W. Moore, who provided the earliest and clearest formulations of the functionalist layering principle
  3. Blau and Duncan, they solved the operational problem of functional stratification research methodologically, and laid the foundation for social stratification as the mainstream paradigm of social inequality research
  1. Differences: The two have different ontological assumptions about what social inequality is.

Section 2 Social Stratification

  • The concept of social stratification is the unequal distribution of social resources in society. Social stratification includes two basic contents: social stratification structure and social mobility.
  • Related Theories of Social Stratification
  • Social Stratification Theory of Classical Sociologists
  1. Marxist Theory of Social Stratification
  1. The existence of classes is only related to a certain historical stage in the development of production
  2. Class struggle will inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat
  3. This dictatorship itself is nothing but a transition to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society
  1. Weber's social stratification theory: Weber mainly understands this concept from the possession relationship of production capital. In Weber's view, the category of class means the influence of various economic factors on people's life opportunities. These two Criteria: property occupancy status and market conditions. Weber believed that the three dimensions (three criteria) of economy, politics and society have relatively independent influences on social stratification and have different sources. Therefore, when we investigate the phenomenon of social stratification, we need to adopt Diverse standards.
  1. Weber distinguished four classes:
  • the upper propertied class, that is, the class with a huge advantage in property possession
  • The dominant occupational class, that is, the class that has an advantage in the market situation
  • The petty bourgeoisie, that is, those who have some but not obvious advantages in both property and market conditions
  • The working class, whose jobs often require only very simple skill training, are therefore in a weaker market position in capitalist society
  1. Three dimensions constructed by Weber:
  • Class categories: provide economic criteria for social stratification
  • Status category: Provides social criteria for social stratification
  • Normal category: Provides political criteria for social stratification
  1. Pareto's elite theory: divided into ruling elites and non-governing elites. It is believed that the composition of the ruling elite class and its status are not constant, and as time goes by, members of the ruling group may be promoted or degraded. In 1916, "General Sociology" was published, which systematically expounded the theory of elite class.
  • contemporary social stratification theory
  1. Functionalist theory of social stratification: social stratification is the embodiment of social inequality; the reason why social stratification is common in all ages and societies is because of the needs of the social operation process.  Representatives: K. Davis and W. Moore
  1. K. Davies and W. Moore jointly published "Several Principles of Stratification" layered view:
  • There are some positions in any society that are more important than others and require special talents and skills to fill them
  • These talented people need to go through a certain period of training before they can work, and pay for it
  • Correspondingly, their future positions must have attractive special value
  • The society gives preference to these special talents in terms of rewards, so all members of society will benefit from this
  • The difference in the pay of these positions is the so-called status gap in social stratification.
  • It is manifested as social stratification differences in the enjoyment of rare items and status and prestige, which has positive functions for society and is an inevitable social phenomenon
  1. The Defects of Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification
  • An endowed or inherited advantage that may affect the logic of different resource allocations
  • People with strong abilities may not always get substantial incentives such as high pay
  • Inequality in education leads to not necessarily equal access to status
  • In general, social stratification does not ensure that the most talented people fill the most important roles or train them to fill those roles
  1. Social stratification in conflict theory: Emphasizing the role of conflict in the formation of inequality. The representative is Dahuadov, who believes that the origin of social stratification lies in the fact that in any society, individuals or groups must enforce rewards and punishments, and this ability to implement means the existence of power relations.
  • Social Stratification and Its Changes in Contemporary China
  • The class structure before the founding of New China (Mao Zedong's "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society")
  1. The landlord class and the comprador class: the class representing the most backward and reactionary production relations in China
  2. national bourgeoisie
  3. petty bourgeoisie
  4. semi-proletarian
  5. The proletariat: the industrial workers of modern industry, is the leading force of the revolution.
  6. nomad class
  7. Peasant class: rich peasants, owner farmers (middle peasants), semi-owner farmers, farm laborers
  • The class structure before the reform and opening up

1949-1952: It was called the period of national economic recovery in history; 1953-1956: It was the period of socialist transformation.

In 1977, the status of classes and strata in Chinese society:

  1. working class
  2. Peasant class
  3. intellectual class
  • The Class Structure of Chinese Society Since the Reform and Opening Up
  1. State and Social Managers
  2. manager class
  3. class of private entrepreneurs
  4. Professional and technical personnel class
  5. clerical class
  6. self-employed business class
  7. business service workers
  8. industrial working class
  9. agricultural labor class
  10. Urban and rural unemployed, unemployed, and semi-unemployed strata
  • social mobility
  • Concepts and Types of Social Mobility
  • The concept of social mobility refers to the change of social members from one social status or occupation to another.
  1. Sorokin's book "Social Mobility" published in 1927 is considered by the sociological circles to be the first work on social mobility from a modern perspective .
  2. Social mobility research mainly involves three levels of issues:
  1. Social mobility can be viewed as a dynamic hierarchical system
  2. Social mobility can be regarded as a process of macroscopic social structure change, which includes changes in the entire social class within the entire social hierarchy
  3. Social mobility can be regarded as the change of the position, role and attribute of individual social members in the social stratification system, which means the transformation of social members' relationship
  1. The meaning of social mobility:
  1. Socialized large-scale production objectively requires the realization of labor flow and talent flow, and the rational allocation of labor force
  2. In modern society, the traditional status acquisition model based on personal origin is gradually being replaced by the modern model based on personal performance, and social mobility has become an important way for individuals to obtain social status
  3. Social mobility strengthens the connection between individual talents and achievements and their social status, which is conducive to creating a positive spirit and the vitality of sub-divisional society
  4. Social mobility is conducive to strengthening the connection between various social groups, eliminating possible social barriers, and promoting the social identity of social members, thus playing a positive role in social development.
  • Types of social mobility:
  1. Vertical flow and horizontal flow : vertical flow refers to the upward and downward flow between different levels in the social stratification system, also known as vertical flow, such as farmers becoming entrepreneurs; horizontal flow refers to the same social stratification level. The flow within the same layer is also called horizontal flow, such as farmers leaving their original villages to continue farming in other villages.
  2. Intra-generational flow and intergenerational flow : Intra-generational flow refers to the change of social status in an individual's life, especially in his working life. A farmer becomes a job after entering a factory; intergenerational flow refers to the change of children's status relative to their parents. For example, the father works in agriculture and the daughter becomes a white-collar worker .
  3. Structural flow and free flow : Structural flow is a large-scale social flow caused by production technology or social system, such as the flow of rural population to cities . The transfer of white-collar workers; free mobility, which refers to social mobility not due to system changes but due to personal special reasons ( such as social mobility caused by personal efforts, accidental opportunities, etc. ).
  4. Competitive vs. Sponsored Mobility: Social mobility without human help is the norm. In competitive mobility, the relative social status, which is the goal of open competition, needs to be obtained through the efforts of the suitors themselves. Sponsored mobility refers to the relatively remote social status that is not obtained directly by individuals through competition, but is conferred by those who have already obtained a higher status according to certain predetermined standards, such as a certain position or a certain position. honorary title.
  • Social Mobility in Contemporary China
  • Five large-scale social movements since the founding of New China
  1. 1949-1956: The new social mobility model is marked by the reshaping of the social class structure before the founding of New China
  2. 1957-1965: Constructed a multi-dimensional binary differential hierarchy
  3. 1966-1977: The Cultural Revolution
  4. 1978-1991：
  5. 1922-now
  • The factors and mechanisms that affect social mobility in China are mainly influenced by three factors: at the macro level, it is subject to the social structure and the country’s institutional arrangements; at the medium level, it depends on the work unit and family; at the micro level, it depends on the individual’s acquired efforts .
  1. social mobility caused by the institutional arrangement itself
  2. Institutional Arrangement and Pre-given Factors, Self-induced Social Mobility
  3. Institutional Arrangement Suppresses Social Mobility Caused by Inherent Factors or Self-Induced Factors
  4. Some loopholes or biases in institutional arrangements are exploited by some members of the society, resulting in social mobility
  • The Characteristics of Current Social Mobility in China
  1. Significant changes have taken place in the pattern of social mobility: Before and after the reform, China experienced two patterns of social mobility: the politically dominated social mobility pattern and the economically induced social mobility pattern.
  2. Social structure from closed to open
  3. Social mobility is trending upwards
  4. At present, social mobility in China is still subject to social transformation and system transition, with obvious transformation characteristics
  5. The current social mobility in China is showing some negative trends that are not conducive to social openness and fairness.
  1. The intergenerational inheritance of class mobility is increasing
  2. Major resources such as economic resources, political resources, and cultural resources tend to gather at the upper levels
  3. Some institutional barriers to fair and reasonable social mobility have not been removed, but continue to affect social mobility

Chapter 12 Deviant Behavior and Social Control 

  • what is deviant behavior
  • The concept of deviant behavior:
  1. Deviant behavior: Refers to behaviors in which social members deviate from existing social norms to varying degrees in a particular society, also known as deviant behavior, deviant behavior, and differential behavior.
  2. Social norms: In any society, there is a set of codes of conduct that are binding on the behavior of social members to regulate the social relationship between people and between individuals and society, and to guide the social behavior of social members. This is social norms.
  • Types of Deviant Behavior
  • According to the manifestation of deviant behavior, it can be divided into three types: deviant habit, deviant psychology, and deviant culture
  1. Deviation habits: Refers to the behavior of personal behavior hobbies that are not recognized by society.
  2. Deviation psychology: Refers to behaviors that cannot be performed in regular social interactions or social activities due to psychological or spiritual reasons
  3. Culture of Deviation: Refers to behaviors manifested in a culture that differs from the dominant culture of the society.
  • According to the standards of the social code of conduct that the behavior deviates from, it can be divided into three types: illegal behavior, illegal behavior, and illegal behavior.
  1. Illegal acts: Refers to acts that violate the provisions of national laws, including crimes and illegal acts that do not constitute crimes.
  2. Violation of rules and regulations: Refers to behaviors that violate rules and regulations related to maintaining social security and public order.
  3. Violations: Refers to any behavior that violates established lifestyles and customs.
  • 偏差行为的功能
  • 偏差行为的负功能
  1. 干扰正常的社会生活秩序
  2. 损害个人和社会的利益
  3. 减弱他人遵从规范的意愿
  4. 破坏社会成员间的相互信任
  • 偏差行为的正功能
  1. 有助于人们进一步认识社会规范
  2. 有助于加强社会团结
  3. 有助于社会预警
  4. 有助于社会进步
  • 偏差行为的理论解释
  • 偏差行为的生物学解释及其根本缺陷

    生物学解释是从个人的生物性和生理性特征来解释偏差行为发生的原因，它假定有些人天生就是不守望规矩的人，因而主要着重于寻找念头行为者的个人生理物质，尤其强调遗传因素的作用。最早的生物学解释是由意大利军医隆布罗索在19世纪后期提出的。人类三种体态：圆胖型（安逸和舒适）；瘦长型（严肃和拘束）；健壮型（精力充沛和缺乏敏感）。偏差行为的生物学解释是从个人的生气生和生理性特征来解释念头行为发生的原因，它假定有些人天生就是不守规矩的人，因而主要着重于寻找偏差行为者的个人生理特质，尤其强调遗传因素的作用。

  • 偏差行为的心理学解释

    心理学解释重视个人的精神、情绪、性格等心理因素对行为的影响，认为念头行为是因为个人心理方面没有能力去学习和遵守有关的社会规范，心理学解释主要有精神分析理论和行为理论。奥地利心理学家弗洛伊德认为不是遗传导致了行为偏差，而是由个人的童年经历所形成的人的性格导致了成年后的行为问题。

  • 偏差行为的社会学解释
  • 失范理论：结构功能主义的重要代表人物美国学者默顿应用了涂尔干的失范概念，建立了著名的失范理论来解释偏差行为的产生。默顿认为存在两种社会规范，一种是社会对个人所追求目标的规范，比如获得财富和好名声；另一种是对个人所追求目标所使用手段的规范，比如经商或从政。当社会成员经过社会化接受了社会规范的目标后，社会同时又为其提供了追求这些目标的手段，这时目标和手段就是平衡的。社会失范会使人们处于失范性紧张状态，为缓解这种紧张，默顿认为人们可能有五种适应方式：
  1. 遵从
  2. Innovation: Innovators, that is, to pursue the goals encouraged by the society, adopt methods that are not recognized by society, or even illegal methods.
  3. Formalism: Rejecting the goals provided by society, but still acting on the means of conforming to social norms. Some students are not interested in learning, but still go to school every day according to the wishes of new parents and teachers. This kind of deviation behavior is formalism.
  4. Retreatism: The abandonment of both socially encouraged goals and socially sanctioned means.
  5. Rebellion: not only rejecting the goals and means approved by society, but also trying to move from personal ideas and replace them with new goals and means. When such deviant behavior touches the political sphere, it is also often called a revolution
  • cultural transfer theory
  1. Concept: Cultural transmission theory, also known as subculture theory. This theory holds that deviant behavior exhibited by deviant actors is learned from their cultural environment. They do not deviate from social norms, but follow the social norms of their group. The reason why their behavior is regarded as deviant Behavior, just because the norms of their group are inconsistent with mainstream social norms, or even contradictory.
  2. Cultural transmission theory divides social culture into: mainstream culture, subculture
  • Labeling Theory: A behavior is considered deviant because power groups in society label it as deviant, and deviant behavior is simply behavior that society defines as deviant.
  • social control
  • what is social control
  • The concept of social control:
  1. Social control was first proposed and elaborated by American sociologist Ross in his book "Social Control".
  2. Social control in a broad sense: refers to the process in which social organizations guide and restrict the social behavior of social members, regulate and restrict various social relations, and guide and restrict the values ​​of social members through social norms and corresponding methods and means. .
  3. Social control in a narrow sense: mainly refers to the process of punishing deviant behavior and re-educating.
  4. Three areas of control:
  1. Control of social behavior: Social control is first of all to restrict the social behavior of social members, requiring social members to act in accordance with social norms.
  2. Control of social relations: also manifested in the control and coordination of social relations among members of society.
  3. Control of social values: Fundamentally, it is the control of the thoughts, concepts and consciousness of social members.
  • Features of Social Control
  1. Universality: The universality of social control is manifested in any society and any stage of social development, social control always exists.
  2. Normative: refers to the society is carried out blindly, but is implemented towards the set goals
  3. Multiplicity: There is not a single way for members of society, but multiple ways.
  • The need for social control
  1. The necessity of social control is first manifested in the inconsistency of goals between individuals and between individuals and society
  2. The necessity of social control manifests itself in the stabilization of various social relations
  3. The necessity of social control is reflected in the prevention of various out-of-control phenomena in social life
  • Types of Social Control
  • macro control and micro control
  1. Macro control: refers to the use of laws, policies, ordinances and other means to control the entire society, including politics, economy, culture, etc.
  2. Micro-control: Relative to macro-control, the control achieved in various specific areas of social life, these areas involve people's most basic social life needs.
  • institutionalized control and non-institutionalized control
  1. Institutionalized control: refers to a form of social control implemented by a certain organizational system according to a set of provisions
  2. Non-institutionalized control: Refers to the form of social control that is not realized through expressly stipulated provisions, but through the consensus formed by the daily interaction of social members
  • external control and internal control
  1. External control: Refers to the use of external social forces to force members of society to comply with social norms.
  2. Internal control: refers to the individual actors internalizing social norms into their own ideas, so that they consciously restrict their social behavior in accordance with the requirements of social norms. "A gentleman is cautious about what he doesn't see, and afraid of what he doesn't hear." It requires people to be able to control themselves, not to indulge their behavior, and to be strict even when no one else is present, that is, without external supervision. Yu Lv already. Internal control emphasizes the acquisition and internalization of social norms. Members of society are not forced to obey social norms but consciously. This is the most effective way of social control.
  • positive control and negative control
  1. Positive control: refers to the use of incentives to encourage members of society to comply with social norms, including material rewards and spiritual rewards. For example, in order to encourage students to study hard, the school establishes incentive mechanisms such as scholarships and skipping grades to reward students with excellent academic performance, and at the same time encourage other students to catch up.
  2. Negative control: Refers to the use of punishment to prevent deviant behavior of members of society. The criminal law is to obtain a deterrent force to prohibit crimes by clarifying the punishment of criminal acts. Schools will also set up some punishment mechanisms, such as recording demerits and expulsion from students, etc. Students who violate school rules and regulations.
  • way of social control
  • Legal control : It is a social norm formulated or recognized by the state to ensure its implementation by coercive force.
  • 道德控制：人们在集体生活中约定人体盛的一套辨别是非、辨别善恶、辨别正义与非正义的价值标准。道德控制通常不依靠国家的暴力来实现，而是依靠教育、依靠社会舆论和个人的内心偏偏来促使人们遵守道德规范。
  • 习俗控制：人们在集体生活中逐渐形成并共同遵守的行为准则，是人类生活中最基本的也是最原始的一种社会控制方式。
  • 宗教控制
  • 社会控制的适度问题
  1. 社会控制是对人们的社会行为加以指导和约束的过程，因而人和社会的关系问题。由此社会控制的适度问题就摆在我们面前，也就是说，要避免社会“失控”或社会“过控”。所谓社会过控，是指过分强调了社会控制的一面，忽视社会成员的个性表达及自由要求的一面。所谓社会失控，是指社会控制相对削弱，社会成员的自由散漫性提高。这两种情况都不利于社会关系的协调，不利于社会整体效应的发挥，应当努力避免，一旦发现就要及时克服和矫正。
  2. 要理解这个问题，必须看到社会控制和个人自由之间的辩证关系。任何社会中个人的自由都不是绝对的，个人的绝对自由也是不可能实现的。因此，社会控制仅仅是限制和制约个人的绝对自由，而并没有限制和制约个人的相对自由
  3. 个人相对自由是在自觉地遵守社会规范的前提下实现的。社会控制是对个人的社会行为的控制和引导，并非对个人所有行为的控制和引导。
  4. 合理适度的社会控制有助于人的个性全面发展以及创造性的发挥，也有助于社会稳定繁荣。反之，则是对个性的压抑，不利于社会进步。任何形式的社会控制，其最终效果必然是体现在对社会成员的实际控制上，包括对他们的社会行为、社会关系 以及社会意识的控制。这些个人的行为、关系和意识都是人作为社会成员的一种特征，都在一定程度上体现了个人的全部面貌以及信为与他人的区别。

第十三章 社会问题

第一节 什么是社会问题

  • 社会问题的界说
  • 社会问题的涵义与构成条件
  1. Social problems: Refers to the problems that affect the normal life of all or some members of the society due to the obstacles in the social process in the relationship between individuals and society or the imbalance between the social structure and the social environment.
  2. Sun Wenwen’s Three Interpretations of Social Issues: "Chinese Social Issues", "Modern Chinese Social Issues"
  1. Explain the emergence of social problems from the perspective of social change and cultural dissonance
  2. A problem is a social problem as long as it attracts the attention of most people in the society and requires collective action to adjust and remedy it.
  3. From the point of view of social psychology, social problems are not only a visible social phenomenon, but mainly a kind of psychological state of people, which is a kind of value judgment.
  1. In 1941, American sociologists Richard Fuller and Richard Maltz pointed out in the article "The Development of Social Problems" that all social problems have to go through three stages of vigilance and policy reform:
  1. Vigilance: When the value of people's benefit to the people is threatened and becomes more and more serious, then vigilance and appeal
  2. Policy formulation: Different interest groups focus on solving problems, and after repeated debates, make resolutions, formulate plans and policies.
  3. Reform: The government listens to the appeals of the people, and relevant departments join in the action to implement the planned policies and promote the solution of the problem.
  1. Components of social problems
  1. Some social phenomena produce dissonance
  2. This disorder affects the normal social life of many people
  3. This disorder has aroused the concern of quite a few members of society
  4. This imbalance requires the mobilization of social forces for comprehensive governance
  • The difference between social problems and personal troubles
        American sociologist Wright Mills in the book "Sociological Imagination" regards social problems as public problems, and believes that public problems are different from personal troubles.
  1. Personal troubles must be related to the individual's self, and are only related to the limited social life field that the individual directly experiences, while social problems involve things that go beyond the individual's local environment and beyond the personal life field.
  2. Distress concerns only the individual, i.e. the individual feels that a value he or she holds dear is at stake, whereas a social problem is public, i.e. a value shared by the public is threatened
  3. Personal troubles have personal characteristics, and they only occur in the area of ​​direct relationship between the individual and others, while social problems have public characteristics, and they often contain institutional and structural crises, as well as what Marx called "contradiction". " and "struggle".
  • General characteristics of social problems: The so-called characteristics: refer to the remarkable signs and signs that distinguish one thing from other things.
  • Sociality: ①Generation of social problems ②Influence of social problems ③Elimination of social problems
  • Universality: Social problems are everywhere and all the time.
  • Particularity: It is relative to universal characteristics. Although it exists all the time, specific social problems may arise at a specific time and in a specific region.
  • Clustering: Social problems often do not appear individually, but appear in groups. At this time, social problems are more destructive.
  • Complexity: The causes of social problems are often diverse, and the consequences of various factors are diverse.
  • Several Theories of Social Problem Research
  • Sociopathology: Popular before World War I and revived only with a revision in the 1960s. The view that people and things that violate moral expectations as "pathological," that is, social problems, is social pathology. The theoretical basis of social pathology is mainly social organism theory.
  • Social Disorganization Theory: Prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s after World War I, social disorganization theory focuses on explaining social problems from the perspective of social structure. Its representatives include Cooley, Ogburn, Thomas and Znanicki. The so-called social disorganization means that various rules in the society have lost their effectiveness in restricting individual behaviors, and the society can neither provide people with the expected rewards and returns, nor punish behaviors that violate the rules. Social disorganization theory holds that social disorganization stems from social change .
  1. Social disorganization theory takes the form of:
  1. Anarchy : that is, there is no uniform set of appropriate social norms in social life to guide people's actions
  2. Cultural conflict : that is, there are at least two opposing value norms and rules in social life, which make people at a loss what to do;
  3. Value collapse : that is, the social value system and normative system are completely confused.
  1. The theory of social disorganization holds that the most effective solution to social problems is to establish social norms and order as soon as possible and rebuild the social equilibrium system. In fact, this is exactly the purpose of Comte’s creation of sociology.
  • Value Conflict Theory: It was established in the 1930s, and after the Great Depression and World War II, it occupied the mainstream position in the study of social issues in the 1940s and 1950s. The value conflict theory holds that due to their different socioeconomic status and vested interests, people may have different value securities standards and different positions and attitudes on the same issue. Therefore, when taking certain behavioral measures to change a certain social phenomenon, Contradictions and conflicts often arise, and such contradictions and conflicts often occur between people . The theory of value conflict that the conflict of cultural values ​​or interests is the root cause of social problems. The value conflict theory has three methods to solve the relationship between interests and value splits in social problems: ① Negotiation; ② Reaching an agreement; ③ Using power
  • Behavior Deviation Theory: Views social problems as the result of thoughts and actions that deviate from social norms. Among them, loss theory, subculture theory and label theory are several important theories to explain the success of thoughts.
  • Social construction theory: Social construction theory holds that there are no social problems in the objective sense. The so-called social problems are constructed subjectively by people. What sociologists really face is not the social problem itself, but how a certain situation is defined as the social construction process of a social problem and its objective conditions. Social construction theory mainly studies the process of defining social issues: ① how the office of social issues is raised and clarified; ② how people maintain this definition; ③ what kind of power the person with the problem has; Actions taken and institutions formed in relation to definition

Section 2 Contemporary Social Issues (referring to social issues induced by social system or social policy imbalance)

  • Structural problems: Refers to social problems caused by social system or policy imbalance. Including corruption issues, poverty issues.
  • Corruption: It is the abuse of rights, that is, the behavior of state staff to use the power given by the government and the public to defraud or use other means to illegally occupy public property for individuals or a certain group.
  1. cause of corruption
  1. Feudalism's concept of privilege, concept of "official standard", concept of law-abiding, concept of hierarchy, concept of nepotism, concept of personal dependence and other old habits are the ideological focus of party and government cadres who use power for personal gain and deteriorate.
  2. The corrupt ideology and way of life of capitalism took advantage of the tide of reform and opening up. Some officials and cadres could not withstand the temptation and embarked on the road of accepting bribes according to the law, smuggling arbitrage, whoring, taking drugs, and selling state secrets.
  3. During the transformation process of the old and new systems, due to the slow or incomplete reform of systems and mechanisms, especially the over-centralization of power, the traditional power structure is still deeply entrenched, objectively there are many loopholes and weak links, which are conducive to the breeding of corruption such as power-for-money transactions and power-to-power transactions. The fearful returnees provided the soil and conditions.
  4. Platinumism, hedonism and extreme individualism are growing among some party members and cadres, which is an important reason for the spread of corruption .
  • Poverty: It refers to a living state in which people cannot obtain basic means of subsistence due to various reasons under corresponding social and historical conditions.
  1. Causes of urban poverty in my country
  1. From the perspective of historical factors, after the founding of New China, the large population, wrong decision-making, and long-term low production efficiency have been influenced by the ideological concept of "many children, many grandchildren, many blessings", etc., which are the deep historical reasons for the urban poverty problem in our country.
  2. From the perspective of social and economic reasons, the system defects of state-owned enterprises have caused large-scale losses, and the number of disadvantaged unemployed people has increased rapidly; the reform of the social security system has been lagging behind, which has weakened the society's help for the urban poor, and the traditional employment and employment system has hindered urban poverty. Population's autonomous poverty alleviation.
  3. From the perspective of income distribution reasons, the unfair distribution of industries and changes in distribution factors lead to the continuous expansion of income gap and the polarization between rich and poor
  4. From the perspective of unemployment reasons, unemployment means the loss of income sources, which in turn leads to life difficulties, and China is at a peak period of unemployment.
  5. From the perspective of personal and family reasons, single-parent families, families with disabled people, seriously ill patients, and elderly people without pensions often have more economic burdens and are more likely to fall into poverty; Those with a low level, those who are helpless or have no fixed source of income, or those with extremely low income constitute the basic composition of China's urban poor.
  • Deviational social problems: Refers to social problems caused by individuals deviating from or violating certain social behavior norms. Such as fighting, alcoholism, drug abuse, AIDS, gambling, suicide issues, etc. Some of them are violations of discipline and law, and some are violations of laws and crimes.
  • Drug problem: Refers to opium, heroin, marijuana, etc. and other addictive narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances controlled by the state.
  1. The basics of drugs:
  1. Narcotics are part of narcotics
  2. The essential feature of drugs is that they can cause people to become addicted and have a belief in dependence on drugs.
  3. Drugs are drugs that are regulated by the state
  4. There are many types of drugs, some of which are clearly not for medical use
  1. International Anti-Drug Day: June 26.
  2. The dangers of drugs:
  1. Harmful to health
  2. destroy family harmony
  3. corrupt social atmosphere
  4. Corrupt regime organization
  5. Hinder socialist economic construction and national defense construction.
  • Food safety issues:
  1. The meaning of food safety: refers to food that is non-toxic and harmless, meets the nutritional requirements it should have, and does not cause any acute, subacute or chronic harm to human health.
  2. Current status of food safety issues
  3. Food Safety Hazards:
  1. It seriously threatens the life safety and health of consumers and triggers a crisis of people's trust in food safety. Obtaining safe, nutritious and healthy food is the most basic right of consumers;
  2. Cause major economic losses to production and operation enterprises, and bring a heavy blow to the development of the industry
  3. Food safety issues are related to economic development and social stability
  1. Causes of food safety problems: Beneficiaries: ①Parties involved in counterfeiting; ②Public servants who enjoy administrative law enforcement rights; ③Departmental and local interest protectors. Specific reasons for food safety incidents are:
  1. The food safety awareness of the country and the people is weak;
  2. Chemical pollution, environmental pollution, biological toxins, etc. threaten the safe production of agricultural products, which is the source
  3. Integrity crisis and lack of social responsibility in the industry, profit-seeking, illegal production, operation, and circulation lead to the effect of "bad goods driving out good goods"
  4. Lack of government supervision
  • Natural social problems: natural disasters, which refer to social problems caused by forces beyond human control.
  • The nature of natural social problems: 1. potentiality; 2. suddenness; 3. limitation.
  • Harm of natural social problems
  • Prevention and treatment of social problems:
  • The nature of prevention and treatment of social problems

It is a comprehensive governance process that conducts scientific analysis of exposed or potential social problems, adopts corresponding countermeasures and means, avoids, reduces the occurrence of social problems or alleviates social problems. The connotation of this definition is:

  1. The purpose of prevention and control of social problems is to give early warning of potential social problems, and proceed from the actual situation to take corresponding policies and means in a targeted manner.
  2. There are social problems of various natures, and it is necessary to proceed from the actual situation and take corresponding prevention and control countermeasures and means in a targeted manner
  3. The means of preventing and treating social problems is not a single one, but a comprehensive use of various means
  4. The reliance on the prevention and treatment of social problems is the masses of the people and all positive factors in society;
  5. Social problems are related to the safety and stability of the family, and the leading force in the prevention and treatment of them in our country is the party and government and their relevant functional departments;
  6. Prevention and treatment of social problems is a process, which must be carried out in an organized, planned and step-by-step manner.
  • The significance of prevention and treatment of social problems
  1. 作好社会问题防治，可以有效地维护社会秩序与社会稳定，增强社会和民众的安全感
  2. 作好社会问题防治，可以避免和减少社会问题给社会造成的损失，包括直接的和间接的损失，物质和精神的损失
  3. 作好社会问题防治，可以保障社会主义现代化大业
  4. 作好社会问题防治，可以促进社会主义精神文明建设
  5. 作好社会问题防治，可以改善有关机构的应对能力和效率
  • 社会问题防治的战略思想
  • 全球性思想：社会问题防治的全球性思想，就是要把社会问题防治放在全球环境中进行考察。
  • 全局性思想 ：要把社会问题防治的战略任务纳入国家经济和社会发展规划。
  • 长期性思想：要认识到社会问题的长期存在和反复性，要有持久战的意志与毅力
  • 社会问题防治的战略措施
  1. 解放和发展生产力
  2. 改革上层建筑和意识形态
  3. 发展科学技术
  4. 完善社会制度，缓解后顾之忧
  5. 建立社会预警系统
  6. 发挥舆论监督的作用
  • 社会问题防治的战略思想和战略措施
  1. 社会问题的防治应有战略思想为指导
  1. 全球性思想。社会问题防治的全球性思想，就是要把社会问题的防治放在全球环境中进行考察。经济全球化进程，把世界各国和地区连接为一个“地球村”等些联系不可分割，互相影响，互相制约。总的趋势是某个国家特殊社会问题越来越少，全球性问题越来越多。因此，社会问题首先要置于全球的背景下进行考察，其便宜从事兼顾国际环境，进行国际合作。
  2. 全局性思想：社会问题是全局性思想，也就是要把社会问题防治的战略任务纳入国家经济和社会发展计划。社会问题防治的情况，是全面衡量一个社会的进步和发展的尺度。只有把社会问题的防治的战略任务作为国家经济社会发展计划的一个问题，才能有效地对社会问题进行防治，才能促进经济、社会发展总目标的实现。
  3. 长期性思想：社会问题防治的长期性思想，就是要认识到社会问题的长期存在和反复性，要有持久战的意志与毅力。社会问题是个人与社会关系失衡的反映，与社会基本矛盾相伴随，其自身存在此消彼长的态势，一是有社会问题难以退出历史舞台；二是有的社会问题在一定条件下被消灭了，但一有气候又死灰复燃了；三是社会前进过程中可能会产生产的社会问题
  1. The prevention and treatment of social problems must be carried out in various ways and by adopting various strategic measures
  1. Emancipation and development of productive forces: the fundamental way to alleviate and solve my country's contemporary social problems is to emancipate and develop productive forces
  2. Reform the superstructure and ideology: While we are reforming and improving the economic system and structure, we must reform the incompatible superstructure and ideology.
  3. Developing science and technology: The prevention and control of social problems requires corresponding science and technology. Structural social problems and deviant social problems need scientific and technological guidance and assistance. This is especially true for natural neighborhood committee problems.
  4. Improve the social security system to ease worries
  5. Establish a social early warning system: The social early warning system is not only the need for the prevention and treatment of social problems, but also the need for social problem governance. The social early warning system includes investigation and research institutions, monitoring systems, social intervention centers, social support networks, social security systems, and warning education systems.
  6. Give full play to the role of public opinion supervision: Newspapers, radio, news agencies, television stations, etc. are the carriers of mass communication and important tools for public opinion supervision.

Chapter Fourteen Social Change

  • what is social change
  • The Meaning and Characteristics of Social Change
  • The concept of social change: It is the variation of the basic form of the relationship between the individual and society . (Contains four categories of content:)
  1. The basic system of social relations: that is, the basic normative system of social industries
  2. The basic structure of society: including organizational structure, class structure, occupational structure
  3. Basic aspects of social relations: the way people live and behave
  4. Man and nature: the environment and the safety and sustainable development of human activity systems
  • The characteristics of social change: inevitability, progress, non-linear (wave), comprehensive
  • Basic Types of Social Change
  • Social Progress and Social Regression
  1. Social progress: refers to the regular movement of human society from a low level to a high level, and the replacement of social forms is the process of social progress.
  2. Social regression: It is a process in which a part or the whole of society changes from a higher development stage that has been reached to a lower development stage.
  • Social Reform and Social Revolution
  1. Social reform: It is a process of local social adjustment or overall improvement that people consciously plan and realize in a relatively short period of time.
  2. Social revolution: It is a form of social change that radically transforms the entire society.
  • overall change and partial change
  1. Overall change: It is the change of the whole social system and the result of the combined force of changes in various social elements. The replacement of social forms belongs to the overall change.
  2. Partial changes: changes in social elements and their interrelationships. Such as changes in the economic system, political system and cultural system.
  • Spontaneous and planned changes
  1. Spontaneous change: Refers to passive participation or blind compliance with social change.
  2. Planned change: refers to the conscious and purposeful participation of human beings in social change . The main form of modern social change is the planned social change in which human beings participate.
  • Reasons for social change (brief statement)
  1. The growth of social productive forces and the contradictory movement of productive forces and production relations
  2. Conflict between material needs and interests of society
  3. Invention and creation of science and technology: William Ogburn emphasized the role of technological invention in social change, so he was called the representative of "technical determinism".
  4. Development and Spread of Culture
  5. change of concept
  6. Demographic change
  7. Alien invasion, environmental damage, natural disasters, etc.
  • planned social change
  • The nature of planned social change: Planned social change is, in essence, to intervene in the social operation process and exert a directional influence on the social system. (way:)
  1. Coordinate the relationship between individual needs, collective needs and social needs
  2. development of reasonable needs
  3. deter unreasonable needs
  4. Controlling the type and extent of stimuli
  5. weaken some needs
  • Social development plan: The social development plan is the assumption of the general direction, major goals, main steps and major measures of social development. Since 1981, the "National Economic Development Plan" has been changed to "National Economic and Social Development Plan" , which shows that the planning work is more complete, more advanced, more in-depth, detailed and extensive than before.
  • social modernization
  • The connotation and characteristics of social modernization
  • The Connotation of Social Modernization

Social modernization refers to the process of transition from traditional agricultural society to modern industrial society. It is based on social differentiation, guided by scientific and technological progress, with industrialization, urbanization, democratization and knowledge-based as the main content. The process of social change in the coordinated development of society.

Subsystems: 1. Industrialization (in the process of social modernization, economic modernization plays an important role. Economic modernization can be measured by the application of science and technology in production, the improvement of mechanization and automation, and the growth of gross national product, etc. , and the key lies in industrialization ); 2. Urbanization; 3. Democratization; 4. Management bureaucracy; 5. Social structure differentiation; 6. Human modernization;

7. The secularization of lifestyle

  • Features of social modernization:
  1. Social modernization is a revolutionary process in the social field (6 basic connotations:)
  1. Two social transitions from agricultural society to industrial society and from industrial society to knowledge society
  2. Continuous improvement of social productivity and quality of life
  3. Profound changes in lifestyle and attitudes
  4. Substantial improvement of national culture and health quality
  5. Fundamental improvement of domestic social welfare and social equity
  6. Changes in the status of the international community
  1. Social modernization is a long-term historical process with stages
  2. Social modernization is a continuous international competition
  • social modern theory
  • Classical modernization theory: It is a general term for the theoretical achievements formed after World War II with the modernization process of western developed countries as the research object. (claims are:)
  1. Use the "traditional-modern" dichotomy to divide social types, and think that modernization is the process of transforming from traditional society to modern society
  2. The impetus for modernization comes from within society
  3. Convergence hypothesis, becoming a developing country will also gradually transform into a modern society
  • Dependency theory: The independent developing countries that emerged after World War II did not achieve modernization as the classic modernization theory said, either underdeveloped or heavily dependent on developed countries (viewpoint:)
  1. The development of a society should be examined from the perspective of the world system, rather than a society as the unit of analysis
  2. Analysis of the current situation of social development should pay attention to the analysis of external factors
  3. According to the standard of "centre-periphery" to divide the country types, western developed countries are at the center and developing countries are at the periphery.
  4. Developing countries should get rid of their dependence on developed countries if they want to achieve development
  • World system theory: It emerged in the 1970s, represented by American sociologist Wallerstein.
  1. The dependence of developed countries and developing countries on quality inspection is two-way
  2. Divide the world system into three levels: "center", "semi-periphery" and "periphery"
  3. The world system theory points out that the current world system is changing, and the three-level structure of the world system is not static
  • "Information Society Theory": In 1980, French Jean-Jacques Servan -Schreiber wrote "The World is Facing Challenges" based on the results of the small-scale research in Paris, American scholar Toffler's "The Third Wave" and the American The "Megatrends" written by the scholar Naisbitt is a representative work on the systematic discussion of the information society. " Information Society Theory" believes that it is an important turning point for human society to enter the information society from the industrial society. (Three main features:)
  1. Information has become a resource for combat readiness and plays a major role in the national economy
  2. Based on the whole society, the growth of value mainly depends on knowledge
  3. Advanced communication and information systems have become a means of social reform, bringing about a change in people's way of life and work
  • "Post-Industrial Society": by American sociologist Daniel Bell in "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society" (Five Features:)
  1. The economy has changed from a product economy to a service economy
  2. Professional and technical personnel are in a dominant position
  3. Theoretical knowledge is at the center of society
  4. Control technology development, technology qualification
  5. Create new "smart technologies"
  • China's social modernization
  • Initial stage of modernization (1840-1911)
  • Partial Modernization Stage (1912-1949): The outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 heralded China’s entry into a partial modernization stage
  • Exploration Period of Comprehensive Modernization (1949-1977)
  • Comprehensive modernization development period (1978 to present)
  • globalization
  • The meaning of the global
  • The meaning of globalization: it refers to the objective historical process and trend involving politics, economy, culture, society and other fields on a global scale, and it is also the further strengthening of communication and exchange relations among countries and regions in the world community , The process of increasing the degree of storage and correlation between each other.
  • characteristics of globalization
  1. Globalization is an objective historical process
  2. Globalization is a multidimensional process
  3. Globalization is an objective requirement for the unity of the commonality and difference of all countries in the world
  4. The process of globalization is a process of constant contradictions and conflicts
  • The Developmental Stages and Characteristics of Globalization
  • stages of globalization
  1. The embryonic stage: the end of the 15th century - the middle of the 18th century
  2. Beginning: mid-18th century - 1870s
  3. Take-off phase: 1870s to mid-1960s
  4. Enhancement phase: 1960s to present
  • Current manifestations of globalization
  1. Financial globalization is becoming increasingly prominent
  2. Economic Globalization Dominated by Transnational Corporations
  3. Globalization of Transportation and Communications
  4. political multipolarity
  5. Cultural diversity
  • Theoretical debates on globalization (controversies surrounding globalization mainly include:)
  1. Has globalization really happened?
  2. Will globalization lead to the convergence of societies?
  3. Has Globalization Undermined the Sovereignty of Nation-States?
  4. Is there any essential difference between globalization and modernity?
  5. Is a global culture emerging?
  • Globalization and China
  • Impact and Challenge of Globalization on China
  1. China's economic growth is too dependent on trade
  2. In politics, since China is a socialist country, the adjusted growth of the economy has shaken the position of Western hegemony and caused them to panic
  3. With the deepening of China's participation in globalization, China's cultural construction has been challenged in two aspects. One is the challenge of Western ideology to the guiding position of Marxism; the other is the impact of some decadent Western cultures on Chinese traditional culture.
  4. In terms of national security, there are still factors affecting world peace such as hegemonism and strong economic politics. The international security environment we are facing is not very optimistic.
  • Coping Strategies for Globalization
  1. It is necessary to clarify China's position in the process of globalization as a prerequisite for formulating a global strategy
  2. We must constantly emancipate our minds, deepen reforms, and develop our own
  3. Enhance comprehensive national strength to ensure national security
  4. We must actively integrate into the trend of globalization with an objective and pragmatic spirit, seize opportunities, actively promote the cause of socialist modernization, and promote the advent of a more fair and equal era of globalization

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